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University  of  California  •  Berkeley 
Gift  of 


Dean  and  Mrs.  Knowles  Ryerson 


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ADAPTED  TO  THE 

Different  Classes  oi  Leainers  *. 

WITH 

AN  APPENDIX, 

CONTAINING 

RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS 

FOR  ASSISTING  THE  MORE  ADVANCED  STUDENTS  TO  WRIT3 
WITH  PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCUJJACT, 


''•they  who  are  learning  to  compose  and  arrange  their  sentences  with  accuracy  sii(] 
order,  are  learnkig  at  the  same  time,  to  think  with  accuracy  and  order."— jS'oir. 


BY  LINTM  KY  MURRAY. 


FROM  THE  EIGHTEENTH  ENGLISH  EDlTIOSr, 
JJNLARGED    AWO    IMPROVfiD    BY    THE    AUTHOE* 


brattlebOrough  : 

^UBhlHBED  BY  JOHN  aOIifi&OOK« 

1819, 


ADVERTISEMENT 

PREFIXED  TO  THE  PlllLADELPIIJA  EDTTIOX, 
PUBLISHED  IN  1811. 

iVs  there  are  many  mutilated  editions  of 
LiNDLEY  Mcrray's  AV'orks  forced  upon  the 
public,  under  the  specious  name  of  "Improve- 
ments;" the  Publishers  of  this  edition  of  the 
Grammar  deem  it  not  impertinent  to  observe, 
that  they  have  copied  from  the  last  edition  re- 
vised by  the  author.  They  doubt  not,  when  a 
comparison  is  made,  that  the  genuine  editions 
of  this  author's  works  will  still  mainiain  that 
superior  approbation  and  eminent  standing  to 
which  his  talents  and  sound  judorment  have 
hitherto  entitled  them  ;  and  that  the  real  views 
of  those  book-makers  who  attempt  to  prop 
their  fabrics  with  the  veteran  name  of  Mur- 
ray, will  be  duly  appreciated. 

The  publishers  have  been  induced  to  offer 
these  remarks  in  order  to  apprize  those,  who 
wish  for  the  genuine  editions  as  they  came  in 
purity  from  the  pen  of  the  author,  to  be  par- 
ticular in  inquiring  for  the  real  and  genuine 
Grammar  of  LI^'DLEY  Murray* 


INTRODUCTION. 


When  the  number  nnd  variety  of  English  Grammars  al- 
ready published,  and  the  ability  with  which  some  of  them 
are  written,  are  considered,  lit  lie  can  be  expected  from  a 
new  compihition,  besides  a  careful  selection  of  the  most  use- 
ful matter,  and  some  degree  of  improvement  in  the  mode  of 
adapting  it  to  the  understanding,  and  tiie  gradual  progress 
of  learners.  In  these  respects  something,  perhaps,  may  yet 
be  done,  for  the  ease  and  advantage  of  young  persons. 

In  books  designed  for  the  instruction  of  youth,  there  is  a 
medium  to  be  observed,  between  treating  the  subject  in  so 
extensive  and  minute  a  manner,  as  to  embarrass  and  con- 
fuse their  miads  by  offering  too  much  at  once  for  their  com- 
prehension ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  conducting  it  by  such 
short  and  general  precepts  and  observations,  as  convey  to 
them  no  clear  and  precise  information.  A  distribution  of 
the  parts,  which  is  either  defective  or  irregular,  has  also  a 
tendency  to  perplex  the  3^oung  understanding,  and  to  retard 
its  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  literature.  A  distinct 
general  view,  or  outline,  of  all  the  essential  parts  of  the  stu- 
dy in  which  they  are  engaged  ;  a  gradual  and  judicious  sup- 
ply of  this  outline ;  and  a  due  arrangement  of  the  divisions 
according  to  their  natural  order  and  connexion,  appear  to  be 
among  the  best  means  of  enlightening  the  minds  of  youth, 
and  of  facilitating  their  acquisition  of  knowledge.  The  au- 
thor of  this  work,  at  the  sume  time  that  he  has  endeavored 
to  avoid  a  plan,  which  may  be  too  concise  or  too  extensive, 
defective  in  its  parts  or  irregular  in  their  disposition,  has 
studied  to  render  his  subject  sufficiently  easy,  intelligible, 
and  comprehensive.  lie  does  not  presume  to  have  com- 
pletely attained  these  objects.  How  far  he  has  succeeded 
in  the  attempt,  and  wherein  he  has  failed,  must  be  referred 
to  the  determinatioaof  the  judicious  and  candid  reader. 

The  method  vv  hich  he  has  adopted,  of  exhibiting  the  pei^ 
formance  in  characters  of  ditferent  sizes,  will,  he  trusts,  be 
conducive  to  that  gradual  and  regular  procedure,  w^hich  is 


4  INTRODTJCTION. 

SO  favorable  to  the  business  of  instruction.  The  more  im- 
portan't  rules,  definitions,  and  observations,  and  which  are 
therefore  the  most  proper  to  be  committed  to  memory,  are 
printed  with  a  larger  type;  whilst  rules  and  remarks  that 
are  of  less  consequence,  that  extend  or  diversify  the  gene- 
ral idea,  or  that  serve  as  explanations,  are  contained  in  the 
Emaller  letter  :  these,  or  the  chief  of  them,  will  be  perused 
by  the  student  to  the  greatest  advantage,  if  postponed  till 
the  general  system  be  completed.  The  use  of  notes  and 
observations,  in  the  common  and  detached  manner,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  page,  would  not,  it  is  imagined,  be  so  likely 
to  attract  the  perusal  of  youth,  or  admit  of  so  ample  and  reg- 
ular an  illustration,  as  a  continued  and  uniform  order  of  the 
^several  subjects.  In  adopting  this  mode,  care  has  been  ta- 
ken to  adjust  it  so  that  the  whole  may  be  perused  in  a  con- 
nected progress,  or  the  part  contained  in  the  larger  charac* 
ter  read  in  order  by  itself.  Many  of  the  notes  and  observa- 
tions are  intended,  not  only  to  explain  the  subjects,  and  to 
illustrate  them,  by  comparative  views  of  the  grammar  of 
other  languages,  and  of  the  various  sentiments  of  English 
grammarians  ;  but  also  to  invite  the  ingenious  student  to 
inquiry  and  reflection,  and  to  prompt  to  a  more  enlarged, 
critical,  and  philosophical  research. 

With  respect  to  the  definitipns  and  rules,  it  may  not  be 
improper  more  particularly  to  observe,  that  in  selecting  and 
forming:  them,  it  has  been  the  author's  aim  to  render  them 
as  exact  and  comprehensive,  and,  at  the  same  time,  as  in- 
telligible to  young  minds,  as  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and 
the  difficulUes  attending  it,  would  admit.  He  presumeiv 
that  they  are  also  calculated  to  be  readily  committed  to 
memory,  and  easily  retained.  For  this  purpose,  he  has 
been  solicitous  to  select  terms  that  are  smooth  and  voluble; 
to  proportion  the  members  of  the  sentences  to  one  another; 
to  avoid  protracted  periods;  and  to  give  the  whole  definition 
or  rule,  as  much  harmony  of  expression  as  he  could  devise. 

From  the  sentiment  generally  admitted,  that  a  proper  se- 
lection of  faulty  composition  is  more  instructive  to  the  young 
grammarian,  than  any  rules  and  examples  of  propriety  that 
':'ftu  be  given,  the  Compiler  has  been  induced  to  pay  pecu'- 


INTRODUCTIONS  5 

iar  attention  to  this  part  of  the  subject ;  and  though  the  in- 
stances of  false  grammar,  under  the  rules  of  Syntax,  are  nu- 
merous, it  is  hoped  they  will  not  be  found  too  many,  when 
their  variety  and  usefulness  are  considered. 

In  a  work  which  professes  itself  to  be  a  compilation,  and 
which,  from  the  nature  and  design  of  it,  must  consist  chiefly 
of  materials  selected  from  the  writings  of  others,  it  is  scarce- 
ly necessary  to  apologize  for  the  use  which  the  Compiler 
]uis  made  of  his  predecessors'  labors;  pr  for  omitting  to  in- 
sert their  names.  From  the  alterations  which  have  been 
frequently  made  in  the  sentiments  and  the  language,  to  suit 
the  connexion,  and  to  adapt  them  to  the  particular  purposes 
for  which  they  are  introduced  ;  and,  in  many  instances,  from 
the  uncertainty  to  whom  the  passages  originally  belonged, 
(he  insertion  of  names  could  seldom  be  made  with  proprie- 
ty. But  if  this  could  have  been  generally  done,  a  work  of 
this  nature  v^ould  derive  no  advantage  from  it,  equal  to  the 
inconvenience  of  crowding  the  pages  with  a  repetition  of 
names  and  references.  It  is,  however,  proper  to  acknowl- 
edge, in  general  terms,  that  the  authors  to  whom  the  gram^ 
matical  part  of  this  compilation  is  principally  indebted  for 
its  materials,  are  Harris,  Johnson,  Lowtb,  Priestlyj  Beattie^ 
Sheridan,  Walker,  and  Coote. 

The  Rules  and  Observations  respecting  Perspicuity,  <fcc. 
contained  in  the  Appendix,  and  which  are  chiefly  extract- 
ed from  the  writings  of  Blair  and  Campbell,  will,  it  is  pre- 
sumed, form  a  proper  addition  to  the  Grammar.  The  sub- 
jects are  very  ner:  'y  related  ;  'and  the  study  of  perspicuity 
and  accuracy  in  w  riting,  appears  naturally  to  follow  that  of 
Grammar.  A  competent  acquaintance  with  the  principles 
of  both,  will  prepare  and  qualify  the  students,  for  prosecuting 
those  additional  improvements  in  language,  to  which  they 
may  be  properly  directed. 

On  the  utility  and  importance  of  the  study  of  Grammar, 
and  the  principles  of  Composition,  much  might  be  advanc- 
ed, for  the  encouragement  of  persons  in  early  life  to  apply 
themselves  to  this  branch  of  learning ;  but  as  the  limits  of 
ibis  introduction  will  not  allow  of  many  observations  oa  the 
A2 


1>  INTRODUmON, 

f?»))>j«ct,  a  few  leading  sentiments  are  all  that  can  be  admii- 
ted  here  with  propriety.  As  words  are  the  signs  of  our 
Ideas,  and  the  medium  by  which  we  perceive  tlie  sentiments 
of  others,  and  communicate  oui^  own  ;  and  as  signs  exhibit 
ihe  things  which  they  are  intended  to  represent,  more  or 
less  accurately,  according  ?3  their  real  or  established  con- 
formity to  those  things  is  more  or  less  exact :  it  is  evident, 
that  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  pro[H 
erties  of  words  of  their  relation  to  each  other,  and  of  their 
established  connexion  with  the  ideas  to  which  they  are  ap- 
plied, will  be  the  certainty  and  ease,  with  wliich  we  trans- 
fuse our  sentiments  into  the  minds  of  one  another  :  and  that, 
%vithout  a  competent  knowledge  of  this  kind,  we  shall  fre- 
quently be  in  hazard  of  misunderstanding  others,  and  of  be- 
ing misunderstood  ourselves.  It  may  indeed  be  justly  as- 
serted, that  many  of  the  ditTerences  in  opinion  amongst  men, 
tvith  the  disputes,  contentions  and  alienations  of  heart, 
which  have  too  often  proceeded  from  such  differences,  have 
been  occasioned  by  a  want  of  proper  skill  in  the  connex- 
ion and  meaning  of  words,  and  by  a  tenacious  misapplica- 
tion of  language. 

One  of  the  best  supports,  which  the  recommendation  of 
this  study  can  receive,  in  small  compass,  may  be  derived 
from  the  following  sentiments  of  an  eminent  and  candid 
writer*  on  language  and  composition.  'All  that  regards  the 
•study  of  composition,  merits  the  higher  attention  upon  this 
♦account,  that  it  is  intimately  connected  with  the  improve- 
*ment  of  our  intellectual  powers.  For  1  must  be  allowed 
*to  say,  that  when  we  are  employed  aft rr  a  proper  manner, 
^in  the  study  of  composition,  we  are  cultivating  the  under- 
•standing  itself.  The  study  of  arranging  and  expressing 
•our  thoughis  with  propriety,  teaches  to  think  as  well  as  to 
•Bpeak  accurately.' 

Before  the  close  of  this  introduction,  it  may  not  be  su- 
perfluous to  observe,  that  the  author  of  the  following  work 
has  no  interest  in  it,  but  that  which  arises  from  the  hope, 
that  it  will  prove  of  some  advantage  to  young  persons,  and 
relieve  the  labors  of  those  who  are  employed  in  their  edu- 

«  Blair. 


IKTRODUCTION.  7 

talloa.  He  ^vi3h«s  to  promote,  in  some  degree,  the  cause 
of  virtue,  as  well  as  of  learning  ;  and  with  this  view,  he  has 
been  studious,  through  the  whole  of  the  worli,  nut  only  to 
avoid  every  example  and  illustration,  which  mi£;ht  have  an 
improper  effect  on  the  minds  of  youth ;  but  also  to  intro- 
duce, on  many  occasions,  such  as  have  a  moral  and  relig- 
ious tendency.  His  attention  to  objects  of  so  much  impor- 
tance will,  he  trusts,  meet  the  approbation  of  every  well- 
disposed  reader.  If  they  were  faitlifuily  regarded  in  all 
books  of  education,  they  would  doubtless  contribute  very 
materialjy  to  the  order  and  happiness  of  society,  by  guard- 
ing the  ifinocence,  and  cherishing  the  virtue  of  the  risiag 
generation, 

Holdgatc,  near  York — 1795. 


ADVERTISEMENT 

TO  THE  NINTH  EDITION. 

The  eighth  edition  of  this  grammar  received  considera* 
ble  alterations  and  additions ;  but  works  of  this  nature  ad- 
mit of  repeated  improvements ;  and  are,  perhaps,  never 
complete.  The  author,  solicitous  to  render  his  book  more 
worthy  of  the  encouraging  approbation  bestowed  on  it  by 
the  public,  has  again  revised  the  work  with  care  and  atten- 
tion. The  new  edition  he  hopes  will  be  found  much  im- 
proved. The  additions,  which  are  very  considerable,  are, 
chiefly,  such  as  are  calculated  to  expand  the  learner's  views 
of  the  subject;  to  obviate  objections;  and  to  render  the 
study  of  grammar  both  easy  and  interesting.  This  edition 
contains  also  a  new  and  enlarged  system  of  parsing ;  copi- 
ous lists  of  nouns  arranged  according  to  their  gender  and 
number;  and  many  notes  and  observations,  which  serve  to 
extend,  or  to  explain,  particular  rules  and  positions."*^ 

*The  author  conceives  that  the  occasional  strictures,  dispers- 
ed through  the  book,  and  iutended  to  illustrate  and  support  a 
number  of  ioaportant  grammatical  points,  will  not,  to  young  per- 
sons of  ingenuity,  appear  to  be  dry  and  useless  discussions.  He 
is  persimded  ttiat,  by  suca  ^>ersons,  they  will  be  read  with  aiteD"- 


8  INTRODtJCTION. 

The  writer  is  sensible  that,  after  all  his  endeavors  to  elu- 
cidate the  principles  of  the  \York,  there  are  few  of  the  divis- 
ions, arrangements,  definitions,  or  rules,  against  which  crit- 
ical ingenuity  cannot  devise  plausible  objections.  The 
subject  is  attended  with  so  much  intricacy,  and  admits  of 
views  so  various,  that  it  was  not  possible  to  render  every 
part  of  it  unexceptionable  ;  or  to  accommodate  the  work,  in 
all  respects,  to  the  opinions  and  prepossessions  of  every 
grammarian  and  teacher.  If  the  author  has  adopted  that 
system  which,  on  the  whole,  is  best  suited  to  the  nature  of 
the  subject,  and  conformable  to  the  sentiments  of  the  most 
judicious  grammarians;  if  his  reasoning  and  illustrations, 
respecting  particular  points,  are  founded  on  just  principles, 
and  the  peculiarities  of  the  I.nglish  language;  he  has,  j)er- 
haps,  done  all  that  could  reasonably  be  expected  in  a  work 
of  this  nature;  and  he  may  warrantably  indulge  a  hope, 
that  the  book  will  be  still  more  extensively  approved  and 
circulated. 

tion.     And  he  presumes  that  these  strictures  will  gratify  their 
curiosity,  stimulate  application,   and   give  solidity  and  pevma 
Dence  to  their  grammatical  knowledge 

iJo/^oif,  near  For*— 1804. 


r 


PART  I. — Orthography. 

Chap.  1.  Of  letters.  Page. 

Sect.  I.         Of  the  oature  of  the  letters,  and  of 

a  perfect  alphabet,  13 

2.  General  observations  on  the  sounds 

of  the  letters,  20 

3.  The  nature  of  articulation  explained,  31 
Chap.  2.                 Of  syllables,  and  the  rules  for  arrang- 
ing them,  34 

Chap.  3.  Of  words  in  general,  and  the  rules 

for  spelling  them,  35 

PART  XL— Etymology, 
Chap.  1.  A  general  view  of  the  parts  of  speech,  39 

Chap.  2.  Of  the  articles,  42 

Chap.  3.  Of  substantives. 

Sect.  1.  Of  substantives  in  general,  44 

2.  Of  gender,  45 

3.  Of  number,  4*^ 

4.  Of  case,  50 
Chap.  4.  Of  adjectives. 

Sect.  1.         Of  the  nature  of  adjectives,  and  the 

degrees  of  comparison,  54 
2.         Remarks  on  the  subject  of  compari- 
son, 56 
Chap.  5.                 Of  pronouns,  57 
Sect.  1.         Of  the  personal  pronouns,  53 

2.  Of  relative  proaouus,  59 

3.  Of  the  adjective  pronounS:,  62 


10  CONTENTS. 

Chap.  6.  Of  verbs.  Page. 

Sect.  1.  Of  the  nature  of  verbs  m  general,  ^66 

2.  Of  number  and  person,  69 

3.  Of  moods  and  participles,  70 

4.  Remarks  on  the  potential  mood,  74 

5.  Of  the  tenses,  76 
d.  The  conjugation  of  the  auxiliary  verbs 

to  have  and  to  5<p,  82 

7.  The  auxiliary  verbs  conjugated  in  their 
simple  forms ;  with  observations  on 
their  peculiar  nature  and  force,  89 

The  conjugation  of  regular  verbs,  93 

Observations  on  passive  verbs,  102 

Of  irregular  verbs,  104 

Of  defective  verbs  ;  and  of  the  different 

ways  in  which  verbs  are  conjugated,     110 
Of  adverbs,  112 

Of  prepositions,  115 

Of  conjunctions,  118 

Of  interjections,  121 

Of  derivation, 

Of  the  various  ways  in  which  words  are 
derived  from  one  another,  122 

2.  A  sketch  of  the  steps,  by  which  the  Eng- 
lish language  has  risen  to  its  present 
state  of  refinement,  1 25 

PART  III.— Syntax. 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  article,  1 55 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  noun. 

Of  several  nouns  joined  by  copulatives,  1 33 
Of  nouns  connected  by  disjunctives,  136 
Of  nouns  of  multitude,  137 
Of  one  noun  governing  another  in  the  posses- 
sive case,  157 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  pronoun. 

Of  pronouns  agreeing  with  their  antecedents,  138 
Of  the  relative  being  nominative  to  the  verb,  142 
Of  the  relative  preceded  by  nominatives  of  dif- 
ferent persons,  24  i 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  adjective.  1 45 


8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

Chap.  7. 
Chap.  8. 
Chap.  9. 
Chap.  10. 
Chap.  11. 
Sect.  1. 

GOMTEIsTS,  11 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  verb.  Page. 
Of  the  verb's  agreement  with  the  nominative  case,  130 

Of  verbs  active  requiring  the  objective  case,  163 
Of  one  verb  governing  another  in  the  infinitive 

mood,  166 

Of  verbs  related  in  point  of  time,  167 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  participle,  171 

Of  the  rules  respecting  adverbs^ 

Of  the  position  of  adverbs,  1 74 

Of  two  negatives,  177 

Of  the  syntax  of  prepositions,  177 

Of  the  syntax  of  conjunctions. 

Of  conjunctions  connecting  the  same  moods,  tens- 
es and  cases,  182 

Of  conjunctions  reqiiiring  the  subjunctive  mood, 

&c.  183 

Of  the  syntax  of  interjections,  142 

Of  comparisons  by  the  conjunctions  than  or  as,  1 92 

Directions  respecting  the  ellipsis,  194 

General  rule  of  syntax,  198 

Directions  for  parsing,  201 

PART  IV.—Prosody. 

€hap.  1.            Of  pronunciation,  2i0 

Sect.  1.     Of  accent,  210 

2.  Of  quantity,  215 

3.  Of  emphasis,  Sit 

4.  Of  pauses^  222 

5.  Of  tones,  224 
Chap.  2.             Ot  versification,  226 

Op  Punctuation, 

Chap.  1.     Of  the  comma,  241 

Chap.  2.     Of  the  semicolon,  247 

Chap.  3.     Of  the  colon,  248 

Chap.  4,     Of  the  period,  249 

Chap.  5,    Of  the  dash,  notes  of  interrogation,  excla- 
mation, &c,  25<y 


12  CONTENTS. 

APPENDIX. 

f  RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS  FOR  PROMOTING  PERSPICUITY 
AND  ACCURACY   IN  WRITING. 

PART  L 

r  ^f  p^spicuity  and  accvracy  of  expression,  with  respect  to 
single  words  and  phrases. 

Chap.  1.     Of  Purity,  257 

Chap.  2.     Of  propriety,  237 

Chap.  3.     Of  precision,  264 

PART  IL 

Of  perspimdiy  and  accuracy  of  expr^s^^ion,  with  respect  to 
the  construction  of  sent  tices. 

Chap.  1.  Of  the  clearness  of  a  sentence^  269 

Chap.  2.  Of  the  unity  of  a  sentence,  274 

Chap.  3.  Of  the  strength  of  a  sentence,  278 

Chap.  4.  Of  figures  of  speech,  295 


ENGLISH  GUAMMAU. 

ExNGLISH  GRAMMAR  is  the  art  of  speak^ 

ing  and  writing  the  English  language  with  pro- 
priety. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts,  viz.  orthogra- 
phy, ETYMOLOGY,  SYNTAX,  and  PROSODY. 

This  division  may  be  rendered  more  intelligible  to  young 
ininus,  by  observing,  in  other  words,  that  Grammar  treats, 
first,  of  the  form  and  sound  of  the  letters,  the  combination 
of  letters  into  syllables,  and  syllables  into  words  ;  secondly y 
of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  their  various  modifications, 
and  their  derivation;  thirdly^  of  the  union  and  right  order  of 
words  in  the  formation  of  a  sentence ;  and  lastly,  of  the 
just  pronunciation,  and  poetical  construction  of  sentences. 

PART  I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER  I.    Of  the  Letters. 

Sect.  I.    Of  the  nature  of  the  letters  and  of  a  perfect 
alphabet, 
»An  articulate  sound,  is  the  sound  of  the  hu- 
man voice,  formed  by  the  organs  of  speech. 

Orthography  teaches  the  nature  and  powers  of 
letters,  and  the  just  method  of  spelling  words. 
A  letter  is  the  fir&t  principle,  or  least  part  of 
a  word. 

The  letters  of  the  English  language,  called  the 
English  Alphabet,  are  twenty-six  in  number. 
B 


14  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Roman  and  Italic  characters. 


Roman. 

Italic. 

Cap. 

Small, 

Cap, 

Small. 

Names. 

A 

a 

A 

a 

ai. 

B 

b 

B 

h 

bee. 

C 

c 

C 

c 

see. 

D 

d 

D 

d 

dee. 

E 

e 

E 

e 

ee. 

F 

f 

F 

J 

cT- 

G 

g 

G 

g 

jce. 

H 

h 

H 

h 

aitch. 

I 

i 

1 

i 

i  or  eye. 

J 

.) 

J 

J 

j^y- 

K 

k 

K 

k 

kay. 

h 

1 

L 

I 

el 

M 

m 

M 

m 

em. 

N 

n 

N 

n 

en. 

O 

0 

O 

0 

0. 

P 

P 

P 

P 

pee. 

Q 

q 

Q 

q 

cue. 

R 

r 

R 

r 

ar. 

S 

s 

S 

s 

ess. 

T 

t 

T 

t 

tee. 

U 

u 

U 

u 

u  or  you 

V 

V 

V 

V 

vee. 

w 

w 

IV 

w 

double  u 

X 

X 

X 

X 

eks. 

Y 

y 

Y 

3/ 

7vy. 

z 

z 

Z 

z 

zed. 

A  perfect  alphabet  of  the  English  language,  and,  indeed, 
of  ever}^  other  language,  would  contain  a  number  of  letters 
precisely  equal  to  (he  number  of  simple  articulate  sounds 
belonging  to  the  language.  Every  simple  sound  would 
have  its  distinct  character  ;  and  that  character  be  (he  rep- 
resentative of  no  other  sound.  But  this  is  far  from  being 
^he  state  of  the  English  alphabet.      It  has  more  original 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


lii 


sounds  than  distinct  significant  letters  ,  and  consequently, 
some  of  these  letters  are  raade  to  represent,  not  one  sound 
alone,  but  several  sounds.  This  vviU  appear  by  reflecting, 
that  the  sounds  signified  by  the  united  letters  th,  5/1,  ng^ 
are  elementary,  and  have  no  single  appropriate  characters 
in  our  aiphapet ;  and  that  the  letters  a  and  u  represent  the 
different  sounds  heard  in  hat,  hate,  hall  ;  and  in  huty  hull^ 
mule. 

To  explain  this  subject  more  fully  to  the  learaers,  we 
shall  set  down  the  characters  made  use  of  to  represent  all 
the  elementary  articulate  sounds  of  our  language,  as  nearly 
in  the  manner  and  order  of  the  present  English  alphabet,  as 
the  design  of  the  subject  will  admit ;  and  shall  annex  to 
each  character  the  syllable  or  word,  which  contains  its  prop- 
er and  distinct  sound.  And  here  it  will  be  proper  to  begia 
with  the  vowels. 


T6'  denoting  the 

Words  containing  the 

simple  sounds. 

simple  sounds 

a 

as  i 

heard  in 

fate. 

a 

as 

in 

fall. 

a 

as 

in 

fat. 

a 

as 

in 

far. 

e 

as 

in 

me. 

e 

as 

in 

met. 

i 

as 

in 

pine. 

i 

as 

in 

pin. 

0 

as 

in 

no. 

0 

.as 

in 

not. 

0 

as 

in 

move. 

u 

as 

in 

mule. 

u 

as 

in 

tub. 

u 

as 

in 

hull 

By  this  list  it  appears  that  there  are  in  the  English  lan- 
guage fourteen  simple  vowel  sounds  :  but  as  i  and  w,  when 
pronounced  long  may  be  considered  as  diphthongs,  or  diph- 
thongal vowels,  our  language  strictly  speaking,  contains  but 
twelve  simple  vowel  sounds;  to  represent  which,  we  have 
only  five  distinct  characters  or  letters.  If  a  m  far  is  the 
same  specific  souod  t^s  a  in  jat  ;  and  u  in  hidl^  the  same  ajs 


16  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

o  mmove^  which  is  the  opinion  of  some  grammarians;  theii 
there  are  but  ten  original  vowel  sounds  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. 

The  following  list  denotes  the  sounds  of  the  consonants, 
being  in  number  twenty-two. 

Words  containing  tht 
simple  sounds, 
bay,  tub. 
day,  sad. 
ofl,  for. 
van,  love. 
egg,  go. 
hop,  ho. 
kill,  oak. 
kp,  all. 
my,  mum. 
no,  on. 
pin,  map. 
rap,  cry. 
so,  lass, 
zed,  buzz, 
fop,  mat. 
wo,  will. 
ye,  yes. 
ing,  sing, 
shy, ash. 
thin,  thick, 
then,  them, 
pleasure. 

Several  letters  marked  in  the  Enj^lish  nl|)habet,  as  con- 
sonants, are  either  superfluous,  or  re[)resent,  not  simple,  but 
i'.omple:;  sounds.  C,  for  instance,  is  superfiuous  in  both  its 
sounds;  the  one  being  expressed  by  A:,  and  the  other  by  s, 
G,  in  the  soft  pronunciation,  is  not  a  simple,  but  a  complex 
sound ;  as  age  is  pronounced  aidge.  J  is  unnecessary,  be- 
cause its  sound  and  that  of  the  soft  g,  are  in  our  language 
the  same.      Q,  with  its  attendant  ?/,  is  either  complex,  and 

*Some  grammarians  suppose  h  to  mark  only  au  aspiration,  or  breathing  :  but  it  ap- 
pearstobe  a  lihUact  Eound  and  formed  jD  a  particular  manner,  by  the  organs  of 
tpeech.  Encvclopedia  Briiannica.. 


Letters  denoiing  the 
ample  sounds. 
b 

as 

keard  in 

d 

as 

in 

f 

as 

in 

V 

as 

in 

g 
h* 

as 

as 

in 
in 

k 

as 

in 

1 

as 

in 

m 

as 

in 

u 

as 

in 

P 

as 

in 

r 

as 

in 

B 

as 

in 

'jL 

as 

in 

t 

as 

in 

w 

as 

in 

y 

as 

in 

j»g 

as 

in 

3h 

as 

in 

ih 

as 

in 

th 

as 

in 

zh 

(fs 

in 

ORTOOGRAPHY.  iT 

resolvable  into  hv,  as  in  quality ;  or  unnecessary,  because  its 
souud  is  the  same  with  k,  as  in  opaque,  X  is  compounded  of 
gs^  as  in  example  ;  or  of  ks^  as  in  expect 

From  thepreceding  representation,  it  appears  to  be  a  point 
of  considerable  importance,  that  every  learner  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  should  be  taught  to  pronounce  perfectly,  and 
with  facility  every  original  simple  sound  that  belongs  to  it* 
By  a  timely  and  judicious  care  in  this  respect,  the  voice  will 
be  prepared  to  utter,  with  ease  and  accuracy,  every  combi- 
!K>tionof  sounds;  and  taught  to  avoid  that  confused  and  im- 
per-ect  manner  of  pronouncing  words,  which  accompanies 
tliiough  life,  many  persons,  who  have  not  in  this  respect, 
been  properly  instructed  at  an  early  period. 

Letters  are  divided  into  vowels  and  conso- 
nants. 

A  vowel  is  an  articulate  sound,  that  can  be 
perfectly  uttered  by  itself:  as,  a,  e^o  ;  which 
are  formed  without  the  help  of  any  other  sound. 

A  consonant  is  an  articulate  sound,  which 
cannot  be  perfectly  uttered  without  the  help  of 
a  vowel  :  as,  6^  d,  f\  /;  which  require  vowels 
to  express  thern  fully. 

The  vowels  c^re,  a,  c,  i,  o,  %  and  sometimes 
w  and  y. 

iTFand  y  are  consonants  when  they  begin  a 
word  or  syllable;  but  in  every  other  situation 
they  are  vowels. 

It  is  generally  acknowledged  by  the  best  graDimarians, 
hat  w  and  ?/.are  consonants  when  they  begin  a  sylicible  or 
Aord,  and  vowels  when  they  end  one.  That  they  are  con- 
sonants, when  used  asinitials,  seems  tobe  evident  from  their 
iaot  admitting  the  article  an  before  them,  as  it  would  be  im- 
proper to  say  anwalnut,  an  yard,&c. ;  and  from  their  follow- 
ing a  vowel  without  any  hiatus  or  difficulty  of  utterance;  af^ 
'Vosty  winter,  rosy  youth.  That  they  are  vowels  in  othe^ 
^3ituat:ioa3,  appears  from  their  regularly  taking  the  sound  af^ 
32 


i8  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

other  vowels ;  as,  w  has  the  exact  sound  of  n  in  saw,  few, 
now,  kc. ;  and  ?/  that  of  ?",  in  hymn,  fit,  crystal,  Sec.  See 
the  letters  W  and  Y,  pages  29  and  30.^^ 

We  present  the  following  as  more  exact  and  philosophical 
definitions  of  a  vowel  and  consonant. 

A  vowel  is  a  simple  articulate  sound  perfect  in  ifself,  and 
formed  by  a  continued  effusion  of  the  breath,  and  a  certain 
conformation  of  the  mouth,  without  any  alteration  in  the  po- 
sition, or  any  motion  of  the  organs  of  speech,  from  the  mo- 
ment  the  vocal  sound  commences,  till  it  ends. 

A  consonant  is  a  simple,  articulate  sound,  imperfect  by 
itself,  but  which,  joined  with  a  vow  el,  forms  a  comi)lete 
sound,  by  a  particular  motion  or  contact  of  the  organs  of 
speech. 

Some  grammarians  sulxTivide  vowels  into  the  Hmplc  and 
the  compound.  But  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  founda- 
tion for  the  distinction.  Simplicity  is  essential  to  the  na- 
ture of  a  vowel,  which  excludes  every  degree  of  mixed  or 
compound  sounds.  It  requires,  according  to  tli<?  definition, 
but  one  conformation  of  the  organs  of  speech,  to  form  it, 
and  no  motion  in  the  organs,  whilst  it  is  forming. 

Consonants  are  divided  into  mutes  and  semi- 
Towels. 

The  mutes  cannot  be  sounded  at  ally  with- 
out the  aid  of  a  vowel.  They  are,  i,/^  ty  d/ky 
and  c  and  g  hard. 

The  semi-vowels  have  an  imperfect  sound  of 
themselves.  They  are,  /j  /,  //?,  n,  r,  r,  5.  Sy  cCy 
and  c  and  g  soft. 

Four  of  the  cemi-vowels,  namely,  /,  w,  /i>  r, 
are  also  distinguished  by  the  name  oiliquidSy 
from  their  readily  uniting  with  other  conson- 
ants, and  flowing  as  it  were  into  their  sounds. 

We  have  shown  above,  that  it  is  essential  to  the  nature  of 
a  consonant,  that  it  cannot  be  fully  uttered  without  the  aid 

*The  letters  w  and  y  are  of  an  ambiguous  nature  ;  being  consonants  at  the  begiiv- 
ning  of  words,  Bnd  vowels  at  the  end  Encyclopedia.  £rifc«-jica. 

Walker's  Critical  Pronouncing  Dictionary,  p?,gQ  24;  ihivj.  CdUi97U 
Ferry's  Eaeli^h  Dictiooary,  Freface,  page  7. 


ORTCIOGRAPHY,  la 

of  a  vowel.  We  may  further  observe,  that  even  the  names 
of  the  consonants,  as  they  are  pronounced  in  reciting  the 
alphabet,  require  the  help  of  vowels  to  express  them.  In 
pronouncing  the  names  of  the  niut«^s,  the  assistant  vowels 
follow  the  consonants  :  as,  bc^pe,  tc,  de,  ka.  in  pronouncing 
the  semi- vowels,  the  vowels  generally  precede  the  conso- 
nants :  as,  ef  ely  atij  en,  ar,  es,  ex.     The  exceptions  are,  ce^ 

This  distinction  between  the  nalure  and  the  name  of  a 
consonant,  is  of  great  importance,  and  should  be  well  ex- 
plained to  the  pupil.  They  are  frequently  confounded  by 
writers  on  grammar.  Observations  and  reasonings  on  the 
name,  are  often  applied  to  explain  the  nature,  of  a  conso- 
nant :  and,  by  this  means,  the  student  is  led  into  error  and 
perplexit5s  respecting  these  elements  of  language.  It  should 
be  impressed  on  his  mind,  (hat  the  name  of  every  consonant 
is  a  complex  sound  ;  but  that  the  consonant  itself,  is  always 
a  simple  sound. 

Some  writers  have  described  the  mutes  and  semi-vowels, 
with  their  subdivision?,  nearly  in  the  following  manner.- 

The  mutes  are  those  consonants,  whose  sounds  cannot  be 
protracted.  The  semi-vowels,  such  whose  sounds  can  be  con- 
tinued at  pleasure,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  vowels,  from 
which  they  derive  their  name. 

The  mates  may  be  subdivided  into  pure  and  impure.  The 
pure  are  those  whose  sounds  cannot  be  at  all  prolonged  : 
they  are,  k,  /?,  t.  The  impure,  are  those  whose  sounds  may 
be  continued,  though  for  a  very  short  space :  they  are,  ft,  d^g\ 

The  semi- vowels  may  be  subdivided  into  vocal  and  aspi- 
rated. The  vocal  are  those  which  are  formed  by  the  voice; 
the  aspirated,  those  formed  by  the  breath.  There  are  eleven 
vocal,  and  five  aspirated.  The  vocal  are,  /,  m,  ??,  r,  v,  w,y, 
z,  th  flat,  2/1,  ng ;  the  aspirated,  /,  /i,  5,  th  sharp,  sh. 

The  vocal  semi-vowels  may  be  subdivided  into  pure  and 
impure.  The  pure  are  those  which  are  formed  entirely  by 
the  voice :  the  impure,  such  as  have  a  mixture  of  breath 
with  the  voice.  There  are  seven  pure — /,  m,  w,  r,  w;,  y^  ng  ; 
four  impure — v,  ^,  ih  flat,  zh, 

A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels,  pro- 
nounced by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice  ;  " 
oa  in  beat,  ou  in  sound. 


20  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels^, 
pronounced  in  like  manner;  as  c«w  in  beau, 
lew  in  view. 

A  proper  diphthongis  that  in  which  both  the 
vowels  are  sounded  ;  aso/  in  voice,  ou  in  ounce. 

An  improper  dipfithong  has  but  one  of  (he 
vowels  sounded;  as,  ca  in  eagle,  oa  in  bout. 

Each  of  the  (liphthoni::aI  letters  was,  doubtU  ss,  oji£:inaIIy 
heard  in  pronouncing  the  words  which  contain  them.  Though 
this  is  not  the  case  at  present,  with  respect  to  many  of  them, 
these  combinations  still  rt^lain  the  name  of  diphthonjis  ;  but, 
to  distinguish  them,  they  are  marked  by  the  term  improper. 
As  the  dipthtJiong  derives  its  name  and  nature  from  its  sjund, 
and  not  from  ils  letters,  and  properly  denotes  a  double  vow^ 
sound,  no  union  of  two  vowels,  where  one  is  sdent,  can,  in 
in  sfrictness,  be  entitled  to  that  appellation  ;  and  Ihe  single 
letters  i  and  ?/,  when  pronounced  long,  must,  in  tids  view, 
be  considered  as  diphthongs.  The  triphthongs,  having  at 
most  but  two  sounds,  are  merely  ocular,  and  are  therefore, 
y  some  grammarians  classed  with  the  diphthong*. 


Sect.  2  General  oOscrvaiions  on  the  sounds  of  the  Utters. 


A. 

A  has  four  sound? ;  the  long  or  slender,  the  broad,  the- 
ohort  or  open,  and  the  middle. 

The  long;  as  in  name,  basin,  creation. 

The  broad  ;  an  in  call,  wall,  all. 

The  short ;  as  in  barrel,  fancy,  glass. 

The  middle;  as  in  far,  farm,  father. 

The  diphthong  aa  generally  sounds  like  a  short  in  prop- 
er names  :  as  in  Balaam,  Canaan,  Isaac;  but  not  in  Baal, 
Gaal. 

Ae  has  Ibe  sound  of  long  c.  It  is  sometimes  found  in 
Lutin  wonts.     Some  authors  retalc  this  form;  as,  e^nigma. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  2\ 

sequator,  Sec.  ;  but  others  have  laid  it  aside,  and  write  enig- 
ma, Cesar,  Eneas,  &c. 

The  diphthong  ai,  has  exactly  the  long  slender  sound  of 
a;  as  in  pail,  tail,&c.  ;  pronounced  pale,  tale,  &c.  :  except 
paid,  again,  raillery,  fountain,  Britain,  and  a  few  others. 

Au  is  generally  sounded  like  the  broad  a :  as  in  taught, 
caught,  &c.  Sometimes  like  the  short  or  open  a  ;  as  in 
aunt,  flaunt,  gauntlet,  &c.  It  has  the  sound  of  long  o  in 
hautboy ;  and  that  of  o  short  in  laurel,  laudanum.  Sec, 

Aw  has  always  the  sound  of  broad  a  ;  as  in  bawl,  scvawl, 
raw!. 

Ay,  like  its  near  relation  at,  is  pronounced  like  the  long, 
blender  sound  of  a  ;  as  in  pay,  day,  delay. 

B 

B  keeps  one  unvaried  sound,  at  the  beginning,  middle, 
and  end  of  words ;  as  in  baker,  number,  rhubarb,  &c. 

In  some  words  it  is  silent^  as  in  thumb,  debtor,  subtle, 
&c.  In  others,  besides  being  silent,  it  lengthens  the  sylla- 
ble ;  as  in  climb,  comb,  tomb. 

C 

C  has  two  diiTerent  sounds. 

A  hard  sound  like  A:;  before  c,  o, «/,  r,  I,  t ;  as  in  cart, cot- 
tage, curious,  craft,  tract,  cloth,  &c. ;  and  when  it  ends  a  syl- 
lable ;  as  in  victim,  flaccid. 

A  soft  sound  like  c,  i,  and  y,  generally  ;  as  in  centre,  face, 
civil,  cymbal,  mercy,  &c*  It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of 
sh;  as  in  ocean,  social. 

C  is  mute  in  czar,  czarina,  victuals,  &c. 

C,  says  Dr.  Johnson,  according  to  English  orthography, 
never  ends  a  word  ;  and  therefore  we  fuid  in  our  best  Dic- 
tionaries, stick,  block,  publick,  politick,  &Cc  But  many  wri- 
ters of  latter  years  omit  the  k  in  words  of  two  or  more  syl- 
lables ;  and  this  practice  is  gaining  ground,  though  it  is  pro- 
ductive of  irregularities ;  such  as  writing  mimic  and  mim- 
ickry ;  trafFiic  and  tratficking. 

C/i  is  commonly  sounded  XWietch;  as  in  church,  chin, 
chatr; charter:  but  in  words  derived  from  the  Greek,  has  liie 


22  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

sound  of  k  ;  as  in  chymist,  scheme,  chorus,  chyle,  distich  ^ 
and  in  foreign  names ;  as,  Achich,  Baruch,  Enoch,  d:c. 

Ca,  in  some  words  derived  from  the  French,  takes  the 
sound  of  sli ;  as  in  chaise,  chagrin,  chevalier,  machine. 

Ch  in  arch,  !)efore  a  vowel,  sounds  like  k  ;  as  in  archan- 
gel, archives.  Archipelago;  except  in  arched,  archery, arch- 
er, and  arch-enemy  ,  but  before  a  consonant  it  always  sounds 
like  tch  ;  as  in  archbishop,  archduke,  archpresbyter,  &c. 

Ch  is  silent  in  schedule,  schism,  and  yatch. 


D  keeps  one  uniform  sound,  at  the  beginning,  middle,  and 
end  of  words;  as  in  death,  bandage,  kindred  ;  unless  it  may 
be  said  to  take  the  Bound  of  ^  in  stulled,  tripped,  <S:c.  stuft, 
tript,  &c. 


E  has  three  different  sounds. 

•A  long  sound;  as  in  scheme,  glebe, severe,  pully. 

A  short  sound;   as  in  men,  bed,  clemency. 

An  obscure  and  scarcely  perceptible  sound  ;  as,  open,  lu- 
cre, participle. 

It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  middle  a  ;  as  in  clerk,  ser- 
geant; and  sometimes  that  of  short  i ;  as  in  England,  yes, 
pretty. 

K  IS  always  mute  at  the  end  of  a  word,  except  in  mono- 
syllables that  have  no  other  vowel;  as  me,  he,  she;  or  in 
substantives  derived  from  the  Greek ;  as,  catastrophe,  epito- 
me, Penelope.  It  is  used  to  soften  and  moilify  the  foregoing 
consonants  :  as,  force,  rage,  since,  oblige :  or  to  lengthea 
ihe  preceding  vowel;  as,  can,  cane;  pin,  pine;  rob,  robe. 

The  di[)hthong  ac  is  generally  sounded  like  f  long  ;  as  in 
appear,  beaver,  creature,  &c.  It  has  also  the  sound  of  abort 
€  ;  as  in  breath,  meadow,  treasure.  And  it  is  sometimes  pro- 
nounced like  the  long  and  slender  a  ;  as  in  bear,  break, 
great. 

Eau  has  the  sound  of  longo;  as  in  beau,  flambeau,  port- 
manteau, in  LrCiiuty  aud  its  compouad,  it  has  the  sound  of 
long  w. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  23 

Ei,  in  general,  sounds  the  same  as  long  and  slender  a  ;  as 
m  deign,  vein,  neighbor,  &c.  It  has  the  sound  of  Ions:  e  in 
seize,  deceit,  receive,  neither,  Sec.  It  is  sometimes  pronoun- 
ced like  short  i  ;  as  in  foreign,  Ibrfeit,  sovereign,  <\:c. 

Eo  is  pronounced  like  e  long ;  as  in  people ;  and  some- 
times like  e  stiort;  as  in  leopard,  jeopardy.  It  has  also  the 
sound  of  short  u  :  as  in  dungeon,  sturgeon,  pun<"}ieon,  Szc, 

Ell  is  always  sounded  like  long  2t  or  ew  j  as  in  feud,  deuce. 

E7V  is  almost  always  pronounced  like  long  w  ;  as  in  few, 
new,  dew. 

El/,  when  the  accent  is  on  it,  is  always  pronounced  like  a 
long;  as  in  bey,  grey,  convey  5  except  in  key,  ley,  where  it 
is  sounded  like  e. 

V\  hen  this  diphthong  is  unaccented,  it  takes  the  sound  of 
e  long  ;  as,  alley,  valley,  barley. 


E  keeps  one  pure  unvaried  sound  at  the  beginning,  mid- 
dle ,and  end,  of  words;  as,  fancy,  muffin,  mischief,  <fec. :  ex- 
cept in  0/*,  in  which  it  has  the  flat  sound  of  ov :  bur  not  in 
composition  ;  as,  whereof,  thereof,  &c.  We  should  not  pro- 
nounce, a  wive's  joiniure,  a  calve's  head;  but  a  wife's  joint- 
ure, a  calf's  head. 

G 

G  has  two  sounds :  one  hard ;  as  in  gay,  go,  gun ;  the 
other  soft ;  as  in  gem,  giant. 

At  the  end  of  a  word  it  is  always  hard  ;  as  in  bag,  snug, 
frog.  It  is  hard  before  a,  0,  u^  Z,  and  r ;  as,  game,  gone,  gull, 
glory,  grandeur. 

G  before  e,  i,  and  ?/,  is  soft ;  as  in  genius,  gesture,  ginger, 
Egypt;  except  in  get,  ^wgaw,  finger,  craggy  and  some 
others. 

G  is  mute  before  n;  as  in  gnash,  sign,  foreign,  <fcc. 

G«,  at  the  end  of  a  word,  or  syllable  accented,  gives  the 
preceding  vowel  a  long  sound;  as  in  resign,  impugn,  op- 
pugn, impregn,  impugned;  pronounced  impune,  imprene,&c. 

G/i,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  has  the  sound  of  the  hard 
g;  Hs  ghost  ghastly:  in  the  middle,  and  Sometimes,  at  the 
end,  it  is  quite  silent ;  as  in  right,  high,  plough,  mightyo 


24  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

At  the  end  it  has  often  the  sound  of /;  as  in  laugh,  cough, 
lough.  Sometimes  only  the  g  is  sounded;  as  ia  burgh, 
burgher, 

H. 

The  sound  signified  by  this  letter,  is,  as  before  observed, 
an  articulate  sound,  and  not  merely  as  aspiration.  It  is 
heard  in  the  words,  hat,  horse,  hull.  It  is  seldom  mute  at 
the  beghining  of  a  word.  It  is  always  silent  after  r;  as, 
rhetoric,  rheum,  rhubarb. 

If  final,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  is  always  silent  as,  all! 
hah  !  oh  !  fob  !   Sarah,  Messiah. 

From  the  f«iintnes3  of  the  sound  of  this  letter,  in  many 
words,  and  its  total  silence  in  others,  added  to  the  negligence 
of  tutors,  and  the  inattention  of  pupils,  it  has  happened, 
that  many  persons  have  become  almost  incapable  of  acquir- 
ing its  just  and  full  pronunciation.  It  is,  therefore,  incum- 
bent on  teachers,  to  be  particularly  careful  to  inculcate  a 
clear  and  distinct  utterance  of  this  sound. 

I. 

1  has  a  long  sound  ;  as  in  fine  ;  and  a  short  one  ;  as  in  fin. 

The  long  sound  is  always  marked  by  the  c  final  in  mono- 
syllables; as  thiu,  thine  ;  except  give,  live.  Before  r  it  is 
often  sounded  like  a  short  u  ;  as,  flirt,  first.  In  some  words, 
it  has  the  sound  of  e  long ;  as  in  machine,  bombttzine,  mag- 
azine. 

The  diphthong  ia  is  frequently  sounded  like  j/a  ;  as  in 
christian,  filial,  poniard ;  pronounced  christ-yan,  &c.  It 
has  sometimes  the  sound  of  short  i;  as  in  carriage,  marriage, 
parliament. 

Ic  sounds  in  general  like  c  long  ;  as  in  grief,  thief,  grena- 
dier. I  has  also  the  sound  of  long  i ;  as  in  die,  pie,  lie  :  and 
sometimes  that  of  short  i ;  as  in  sieve. 

leu  has  the  sound  of  long?^;  as  in  lieu,  adieu,  purlieu. 

lo,  when  the  accent  is  upon  the  first  vowel,  forms  two  dis- 
tinct syllables ;  as,  priory,  violet,  violent.  The  termina- 
tions tion  and  sion^  are  sounded  exactly  like  the  verb  shun ; 
except  when  the  t  is  preceded  by  s  oi  x  ;  as  in  question,  di- 
gestion, combustion,  mixtion,  &rc. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  25 

The  fripbtliong  iou  is  sometimes  pronounced  distinctly  in 
two  syllables ;  as  in  billious,  various,  abstemious.  But  these 
vowels  often  coalesce  into  one  sjllable ;  as  in  precious,  fac- 
tious, noxious. 

J. 

J  is  pronounced  exactly  like  soft  g :  except  in  hallelu- 
jah, where  it  is  pronounced  like  ^, 

K. 

K  has  the  sound  of  c  hard,  and  is  used  before  e  and  «, 
where,  according  to  English  analogy,  c  would  be  soft;  as 
kept,  king,  skirts.  It  is  not  sounded  before  n;  as  in  knife, 
knell,  knocker.  It  is  never  doubled  except  in  Habakkuk; 
but  c  is  used  before  it,  to  shorten  the  vowel  by  a  double  con- 
sonant ;  as  cockle,  pickle,  sucker. 


L  has  always  a  soft  liquid  sound ;  as  in  love,  billow,  quar- 
rel. It  is  sometimes  mute  ;  as  in  half,  talk,  psalm.  The 
custom  is  to  double  the  /  at  the  end  of  monosyllables  ;  as, 
mill,  windfall;  except  where  a  diphthong  precedes  it  5  as, 
hail,  toil,  soil. 

Lc  at  the  end  of  words,  is  pronounced  like  a  weak  el ;  ia 
which  the  e  is  almost  mute ;  as,  table,  shuttle. 

M. 

M  has  always  the  same  sound ;  as,  murmur,  monumentaJj 
except  in  comptroller,  which  is  pronounced  controller. 

N. 

N  has  two  sounds  :  the  one  pure ;  as  in  man,  net,  noble ; 
the  other  a  ringing  sound  like  ng  ;  as  in  thank,  banquet,  <fcc. 

N  is  mute  when  it  ends  a  syllable,  and  is  preceded  by  m  ; 
as,  hymn,  solemn,  autumn. 

The  participle  ing  must  always  have  its  ringing  sound ;  a», 
writing,  reading,  speaking.  Some  writers  have  supposed 
C 


t>6  ENGLISH  GRAMiMAU. 

that  when  ing  is  preceded  by  ing,  it  shouUl  he  pronounced 
iti ;  as,  singing,  bringing,  sliould  be  sounded  singin,  hringin  : 
but  as  it  is  a  good  rule,  with  respect  to  pronunciation,  to  ad- 
here to  the  written  words,  unless  custom  has  clearly  decided 
otherwise,  it  does  not  seem  proper  to  adopt  this  innovation. 

O. 

O  has  a  long  sound  ;  as  in  note,  bone,  obedient,  over;  and 
a  short  one  ;  as  in  not,  got,  lot,  trot. 

It  has  sometimes  the  short  sound  of  ti ;  as,  son,  come,  at- 
torney. And  in  some  words  it  is  sounded  like  oo  ;  as  in 
prove,  move;  and  often  like  au  ;  as  in  nor,  for,  lord. 

The  diphthong  oa  is  regularly  pronounced  as  the  long 
sound  of  0  ;  as  in  boat,  oat,  coal ;  except  in  broad,  abroad, 
groat,  where  it  takes  the  sound  of  broad  a  ;  as,  abrawd,  <Slc. 

Oe  has  the  sound  of  single  c.  It  is  sometimes  long ;  as, 
foetus,  Anlceci ;  and  somttimes  short  ;  as  in  cuconomics, 
oecumenical.  In  doe,  foe,  sloe,  toe,  throe,  hoe  and  bilboes, 
it  is  sounded  exactly  like  long  o. 

Oi  iias  almost  universally  the  double  sound  of  abroad  and 

long  united,  as  in  boy  ;  as,  boil,  toil,  s[>oil,  joint,  point,  a- 

jint :  which  should  never  be  pionuunced  as  if  written  bile, 
spile,  tile.  Sec. 

Oo  almost  always  preserves  its  regular  sound  ;  as  in  moon, 
soon,  food.  It  has  a  shorter  sound  in  wool,  good,  foot,  and  a 
few  others.  In  blood  and  Hood  it  sounds  like  short?/.  Door 
and  tloor  should  always  be  pronounced  as  if  written  dore 
and  flore. 

The  diphthong  ou  has  six  dilferent  sounds.  The  first  and 
proper  sound  is  equivalent  to  ow  in  down;  as  inbound, 
found,  surround. 

The  second  is  that  of  short  ii  ;  as  in  enough,  trouble, 
journey. 

The  third  is  that  of  oo  ;  as  in  soup,  youth,  tournament. 
The  fourth  is  that  of  long  o  ;  as  in  though,  mourn,  poul- 
tice. 

The  fifth  is  that  of  short  o  ;  as  in  cough,  trough. 

The  sixth  is  that  of  awe  ;  as  in  ought,  brought,  thought* 

Ow  is  generally  sounded  like  ou  in  tiiou;  as  in  brown, 


orthography:  ai- 

dowry,  shower.     It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  o  ;  as  in  snow, 
^rovv,  bestow. 

The  diphthong  oy  is  but  another  form  for  oiy  and  is  pro- 
nounced exactly  like  it. 

P. 

P  has  always  the  same  sound,  except,  perhaps,  in  cup* 
board,  wher^  it  sounds  like  A.  It  is  sometimes  mute  ;  as  in 
psalm,  psalter,  Ptolemy:  and  between  m  and  t ;  as,  tempt, 
empty,  presumptuous. 

Ph  is  generally  pronounced  like/;  as  in  philosophy,  phi- 
lanthropy, Philip. 

In  ne[)hew  and  Stephen,  it  has  the  sound  of  v.  In  Apoph- 
thegm, phthisis,  phthisic,  and  phthisical,  both  letters  are  en- 
tirely dropped. 

Q  is  always  followed  by  u  ;  as,  quadrant,  queen,  quire. 
Qm  is  sometimes  sounded  like  k  ;  as,  conquer,  liquor, 
risque. 

R« 

R  has  a  rough  sound ;  as  in  Rome,  river,  rage  :  and  a 
smooth  one;  as  in  bard,  card,  regard. 

Re  at  the  end  of  many  words,  is  pronounced  like  a  weak 
cr  ;  as  in  theatre,  sepulchre,  massacre. 


S  has  two  different  sounds. 

A  soft  and  flat  sound  like  z  :  as,  besom,  nasal,  dismal, 

A  sharp  hissing  sound  ;  as,  saint,  sister,  Cyprus. 

It  is  ahvays  sharp  at  the  beginning  of  words. 

At  the  end  of  words  it  takes  the  soft  sound  ;  as  his,  was, 
trees,  eyes  ;  except  in  the  words  this,  thus,  us,  yes,  rebus^ 
surplus,  &c. ;  and  in  words  terminating  with  ous. 

It  sounds  like  z  before  ion^  if  a  vowel  goes  before ;  as  in* 
trusion  ;  but  like  5  sharp,  if  it  follows  a  consonant ;  as,  con- 
version.   It  also  soiinds  like  ^  before  e  mute  ;  as^  amuse  j 


23  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

and  before  y  final ;  as,  rosy  :  and  in   the  words  bosom,  dr- 
sire,  wisdom,  &c. 

S  is  mute  in  isle,  island,  demesne,  viscount. 

T. 

T  generally  sounds,  as  in  take,  temper.  T  before  w, 
when  the  accent /;rrav/f. 9,  sounds  like  tch  :  as  nature,  virtue, 
are  pronounced  natchure,  virchue.  Ti  before  a  vowel  has 
the  sound  of  sk;  «s  in  salvation;  exce[)t  in  such  words  as 
tierce  tiara,  &c.  and  unless  an  s  goes  before,  as,  question  ; 
and  excepting  also  derivatives  from  words  ending  in  tt/  ;  as, 
Blighty,  mightier. 

T/f,  has  two  sounds  :  the  one  soft  and  t^at;  as,  thus,  wheth- 
er, heathen  :  the  olhof  hard  and  sharp:  as,  thing,  think, 
breath. 

Thj  at  the  beginning  of  words,  is  sharp  ;  as  in  thank,  thick, 
thunder  :  except  in  that,  then,*thus,  thither,  and  some  oth- 
ers. Th,  at  the  end  of  words,  is  also  sharp  ;  as,  death, 
breath,  mouth  :  except  in  with,  booth,  beneath,  S:c, 

Thy  in  the  middle  of  words,  is  sharp;  as,  panther,  ortho- 
dox, misanthrope  :  except  worthy,  fartliing,  brethren,  and  a 
few  others. 

TA',  l)etween  two  vowels,  is  generally  flat  in  wonls  purely 
English;  as,  father,  heathen,  together,  neither,  mother. 

77*,  between  two  vowels,  in  words  from  the  learned  lan- 
2;uages,  is  generally  sharp  ;  as  apathy,  sympisany,  Athens, 
apothecary. 

7V«,  is  sometimes  pronounced  like  simple  <;  as,  Thomas, 
Jiyme,  Thomas,  asthma. 

U. 

U  has  three  sounds,  viz. 

A  long  sound;  as  in  mule,  tfibe,  cubic. 

A  short  sound  ;    ris  in  dull,  gull,  custard. 

An  obtuse  sound,  like  00  ;  as  in  bull,  full,  iMishel. 

The  strongest  deviation  of  this  letter  from  i<s  natural 
sound,  is  in  the  words  busy,  business,  bury,  and  burial; 
which  are  pronounced  bizzy,  diziness,  berrry,  and  berrial. 

A  is  often  used  before  words  beginning  with  u  long, 
and  an  always  before  those  that  begin  with  u  short ;  as,  a 
nnion,  a  university,  a  useful  book  ;  an  uproar,  an  usher,  an 
ii:nbrella. 

The  diphthong  ua,  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  tva ;  as 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  ^9 

in  assuage,  persuade,  antiquary.  It  has  also  the  sound  ol 
middle  a;  as  in  guard,  guardian,  guarantee. 

Tie  is  often  used  like  we  :  as  in  quench,  querist,  conquest. 
It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  u;  as  in  cue,  hue,  ague.  In  a 
few  words,  it  is  pronounced  like  c  short;  as  in  guest,  guess. 

In  some  words  it  is  entirely  sunk  ;  as  in  antique,  oblique, 
prorogue,  catalogue,  dialogue,  &c. 

Vi  is  frequently  pronounced  wi;  as  in  languid,  anguish, 
extinguish.  It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  i  long;  as  ia 
guide,  guile,  disguise  :  and  sometimes  that  of  2  short ;  as  ia 
guilt,  guinea,  Guildhall.  In  some  words  if  k  sounded  like 
long  u  ;  as  in  juice,  suit,  pursuit ;  and  after  /'  like  oo  j  as  in 
bruize,  fruit,  recruit, 

Vo  is  pronounced  like  wo;  as  it  quote,  quorum,  quondam. 

Uy  has  the  sound  of  long  e  ;  as  in  obloquy,  soliloquy  ^ 
pronounced  obliquee,  &c.  except  buy  and  its  derivatives. 

V. 

V  has  ihe  sound  of  flat/,  and  bears  the  same  relation  to 
it,  as  h  does  to  /?,  d  to  /,  hard  g  to  A*,  and  z  io  s.  It  has 
also  one  uniform  sound ;  as,  vain,  vanity,  love, 

W. 

W^  when  a  consonant,  has  nearly  the  sound  of  go  ;  as- 
water  resembles  the  sound  of  ooater ;  but  that  it  lias  a 
stronger  and  quicker  sound  than  oo,  and  has  a  formation 
essentially  different,  will  appear  to  a  person  who  pronounces 
with  attention*  the  words  wo,  woo,  beware  ;  and  who  reflects 
that  it  will  not  admit  the  article  an  before  it ;  Avhich  oo 
would  admit.  In  some  words  it  ia  not  sounded;  as  in  an- 
swer, sword,  wholesome  :  it  is  always  silent  before  r,  as  in 
wrap,  wrinkle,  wrist,  wrong,  wry,  bewray,  &c. 

W  before  h  is  pronounced  as  if  it  were  after  the  h;  as, 
why,  hwy  ;  when,  hwen  ;  what,  hwat. 

W  is  often  joined  to  o  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  without 
affecting  the  sound  of  that  vowel  ;  as  crow,  blov/,  grow, 
know,  row,  flow,  &c. 

When  w  is  a  vowel,  and  is  distinguished  in  the  pro- 
nunciation, it  has  exactly  the  same  sound  as  w  would  have 
in  the  same  situation  ;  as,  draw,  crew,  view,  now,  sawye^^ 
vowel,  outlaw. 

C2 


A(j  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

X. 

X  has  Hiree  sounds,  viz. 

It  is  sounded  like  2  at  the  bc^inninc:  of  proper  names  of 
Greek  original  ;  as  in  Xanthus,  Xenoplun,  Xerxes. 

It  has  a  sharp  sound  like  ks,  \viien  it  ends  a  syllable  ^vith 
the  accent  upon  it;  as  exit,  exercise,  excellence;  or  when 
the  accent  is  on  the  next  syllable,  if  it  begins  with  acoiisu- 
nant;  as,  excuse,  extent,  expense. 

It  has  generally  a  flat  sound  like^'r,  when  the  accent  is  not 
on  it,  and  the  following  syllable  begins  with  a  vowel;  as, 
exert,  exist,  example;  pronounced  egzert,  egzist,  egzample. 

Y. 

y,  when  a  consonant,  has  nearly  IIk'  sound  of  rr;  as 
youth,  York,  reseml)le  the  sounds  of  reouth,  eeork  :  but  that 
this  is  not  its  exact  sound  will  be  clearly  perceived  by  pro- 
nouncing the  words  v^,  3/C.9,  ncrv-ycar^  in  which  its  just  and 
proper  sound  is  ascertained.  It  not  only  requires  a  strong- 
er exertion  of  the  organs  of  speech  to  prorounce  it,  than  is 
required  to  pronounce  cc  ;  but  its  formation  is  ess«'ntially 
difiercnt.  It  will  not  admit  of  an  before  il,  as  cc  will  in  the 
following  example;  an  ccL  The  opinion  that  y  and  n\ 
when  they  begin  a  word  or  syllable,  take  axactly  the  sound 
of  cc  and  00,  has  induced  some  grammarians  to  assort,  that 
these  letters  are  always  vowels  or  diphthongs. 

When  y  is  a  vowe',  it  has  exactly  the  same  sound  as  i 
would  have  in  the  same  situation;  as,  rhyme,  system, justify, 
pyramid,  parly,  fancy,  hungry. 

Z. 

Z  has  the  sound  of  an  s  uttered  with  a  closer  compres- 
sion of  the  palate  by  the  tongue ;  it  is  the  flat  s  ;  as,  freeze, 
frozen,  brazen. 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark  tliat  the  sounds  of  the  letters 
vary,  as  they  are  differently  associated,  and  that  the  pro- 
nunciation of  these  associations  depends  upon  the  position 
of  the  accent.  II  may  also  be  observed,  that,  in  order  to 
pronounce  accurately,  great  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
vowels  which  are  not  accented.  There  is  scarcely  any 
thing  which  more  distinguishes  a  person  of  a  poor  educa* 
'ion,  from  a  persoa  of  a  good  one,  than  the  pronunciation 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  31 

of  the  unaccented  vowels.  When  vowels^  are  under  the 
accent^  the  best  £j[>eakei'3  ami  the  lowest  oi'  the  people,  with 
very  few  exceptions,  proaoiince  them  iii  the  same  man- 
ner ;  hut  the  unaccented  vowels  in  tfie  mouths  of  the  for- 
mer, have  a  (list in  !t,  o  )cn  and  specinc  sound,  while  the 
Iritter  often  totally  sink  them,  or  change  them  into  some 
other  sound. 

Sect.  3.     The  nature  of  articulation  explained, 

A  CONCISE  account  of  the  orlo;in  and  formation  of  the 
sounds  emitted  by  the  human  voice,  miy,  })erhaps,  not 
improperly,  he  liere  introiuceu.  It  any  2;ratify  the  ingen- 
ious stud'jiit,  and  serve  to  exp' liu  more  fully  the  nature  of 
articuiatioii,  and  the  radical  distinction  between  vowels  and 
consonauls. 

Hum m  voice  is  air  sent  out  from  the  lungs  atul  so  agi- 
tated or  modified  in  its  poss  ige  through  the  windpipe  and 
larynx,  as  to  becoai'?  distiiJcUy  aulible.  The  windpipe 
is  that  tuop,  which  o?j  i,;u,iching  the  fore  part  of  our  throat 
externally,  we.  feel  hti'd  and  uneven,  it  conveys  air  into 
the  lun2;5  for  tb-e  purpose  of  !)reaihing  and  speech.  The 
top  or  u[)per  part  of  the  windpipe  is  called  the  larynx^ 
cousislirig  of  fbur  ov  five  cartilages,  that  mrsy  be  expanded 
or  hrougnt  lo'idlier,  i>y  the  action  of  certain  muscles 
T  hich  operate  all  ?a  the  same  tirnf^.  In  the  middle  of  the 
larynx  there  is  a  small  opening,  called  the  glottis,  through 
which  the  breath  and  voice  are  conveyed.  The  opening  is 
not  wider  than  one  tenth  of  an  inch  ;  and  therefore,  the 
breath  transmitted  through  it  from  the  lunirs,  must  pass 
with  considerable  velocity.  The  voice  thus  fornsed  is 
strengthened  and  softened  by  a  reverberation  from  the  pa- 
late and  other  hollow  places  in  the  inside  of  the  mouth  and 
nostrils;  and  as  these  are  belter  or  worse  shaped  for  this 
reverberation,  the  voice  is  said  to  be  more  or  less  agreeable. 

If  we  consider  the  many  varieties  of  sound,  which  one 
and  the  same  human  voice  is  capable  of  uttering,  together 
with  the  smallness  of  the  diameter  of  the  glottis;  and  re- 
flect that  the  same  diameter  must  always  produce  the 
same  tone,  and,  consequently,  that  to  every  change  of  tone, 
a  correspondent  change  of  diameter  is  necessary ;  we 
must  be  filled  with  admiration  at  the  mechanism  of  tbe&e 


33  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

parts  and  the  fineness  of  the  fibres  that  operate  in  produc- 
ing effects  so  minute,  so  various,  and  in  their  proportions 
so  exactly  uniform.  For  it  admits  of  proof,  that  the  diame- 
ter of  the  human  glottis  is  capable  of  more  than  sixty  dis- 
tinct degrees  of  contraction  or  enlargement,  by  each  of 
which  a  different  note  is  produced  ;  and  3^et  the  greatest  di- 
ameter of  that  aperture,  as  before  observed,  does  not  exceed 
one  tenth  of  an  inch. 

Speech  is  made  up  of  articulate  voices  :  and  what  we 
call  arliculaiion^  is  performed  not  by  the  lungs,  windpipe,  or 
larynx,  but  by  the  action  of  the  throat,  palate,  teeth,  tongue, 
lips,  and  nostrils.  Articulation  begins  not,  till  the  breath, 
or  voice,  has  passed  througii  the  larynx. 

The  simplest  articulate  voices  are  those  which  proceed 
from  an  open  mouth  and  are  by  grammariams  called  vowel 
sounds.  In  transmitting  these,  the  aperture  of  the  mouth 
may  be  pretty  large,  or  somewhat  smaller  or  \eTy  small ; 
which  is  one  cause  of  the  variety  of  vowels  :  a  particular 
sound  beinq;  produced  by  each  particular  aperture.  More- 
over, in  passing  through  an  open  raoulb,  the  voice  may  he 
gently  acted  upon,  by  the  lips  or  by  the  tongue  and  palate, 
or  by  the  tongue  and  throat ;  whence  another  source  of  va- 
riefv  in  vowel  sounds. 

Thus  ten  or  twelve  simple  vowel  sounds  may  be  formed 
agreeably  to  the  plan  in  page  15  :  and  the  learners,  by  ob- 
serving the  position  of  their  mouth,  lips,  tongue,  <5jc.  whcrt 
they  are  uttering  the  sounds,  will  perceive  that  various  ope- 
rations of  these  organs  of  speech,  are  necessary  to  the 
production  of  the  different  vowel  sounds;  and  that  by  mi- 
liute  variations  they  may  all  be  distinctly  pronounced. 

When  the  voice,  in  its  passage  through  the  mouth,  ig 
totally  intercepted  or  strongly  compressed,  there  is  formed 
a  certain  modification  of  articulate  sound,  which,  as  express- 
ed by  a  character  in  writing,  is  called  a  consonant.  Silence 
is  the  effect  of  a  total  iiiferception  ;  and  indistinct  sound,  ol* 
a  strong  compression ;  and  therefore  a  consonant  is  not  of 
ilself  a  distinct  articulate  voice,  and  its  influence  in  vary- 
ing the  tones  of  language  is  not  clearly  perceived  ;  unless 
it  be  accompanied  by  aa  opening  oi  the  mouth,  that  is  by  a 
Towel. 

By  making  the  experiment  with  attention,  the    student 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  33 

will  perceive  (hat  each  of  the  imttes  is  formed  by  the  voice 
being  interccptetVhy  the  lips,  by  the  tongue  and  palate,  or 
[  by  the  tongue  and  throat,*  and  that  the  semi-voyvels  are 
formed  by  the  same  organs  strongly  compressing  the  voic« 
in  its  passage,  but  not  totally  intercepting  it. 

The  elements  of  language,  according  to  the  different 
seals  where  they  are  formed,  on  the  several  organs  of 
speech  chiefly  concerne<l  in  their  pronunciation,  are  di- 
vided into  several  classes,  and  denominated  as  follows  : 
those  are  called  labith\  which  are  formed  by  the  lips  ;  those 
dniials^  that  are  formed  with  the  teeth  ;  palatals^  that  arc 
ibrmed  wiih  the  palate  ;  and  nasals^  that  are  formed  by  the 
nose. 

The  importance  of  obtaining,  in  early  life,  a  clear,  dis- 
tinct, and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  sounds  of  the  first 
principles  of  language,  and  a  wish  to  lead  young  minds  to  a 
further  consideration  of  a  subject  so  curious  and  us*^ful, 
have  induced  the  compiler  to  bestow  particular  attention  on 
the  preceding  part  of  his  work.  Some  writers  think  that 
these  subjects  do  not  properly  constitute  any  part  of  gram- 
mar;  and  consider  them  as  the  exclusive  province  of  the 
spelling-book;  but  if  we  reflect,  that  letters  and  their  sounds 
are  the  constituent  principles  of  that  art,  which  teaches  us 
to  S[)eak  and  write  with  propriety,  and  that,  in  general,  very 
little  knowledge  of  their  nature  is  acquire!  by  the  spelling- 
book,  we  must  admit  that  they  properly  belong  to  gram- 
mar; and  that  a  national  consideration  of  these  elementary 
principles  of  language,  is  an  object  that  demands  the  atten- 
tion of  the  young  grammnrian.  The  sentiments  of  a  very 
judicious  and  eminent  writer  (Quinctilian)  respecting  this 
part  of  grammar,  may,  perhaps,  be  properly  introduced  oa 
the  preseiit  occasion. 

*'Lct  no  persons  despise,  as  inconsiderable,  the  elements 
of  grammar,  because  it  m.ty  seem  to  them  a  matter  of  small 
consequence,  to  show  the  distinction  between  vowels  and 
consonants,  and  to  divide  the  latter  into  liquids  and  mutes. 
But  they  who  penetrate  into  the  innermost  parts  of  thi^ 
temple  of  science,  will  tbere  discover  such  refinement  and 
snbtilty  of  matter,  as  are  not  only  proper  to  sharpen  the 
understandings  of  young  persons,  but  suflicient  to  give  ex- 
*ercise  for  the  most  proround  knowledge  and  erudition. 


34  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  elementary  sounds  under  their  smallest  combina- 
tion, produce  a  syllable  ;  syllables  properly  combinej]  pro- 
duce a  word ;  words  duly  combined  produce  a  sentence  ; 
and  sentences  properly  combined  produce  an  oration  or 
discourse.  Thus  it  is,  says  Harris,  in  his  HeRxMes,  that 
to  principles  apparently  so  trivial  as  a  few  plain  elementa* 
ry  sounds,  we  owe  thfit  variety  of  articalate  voices,  which 
has  been  sufficient  to  explain  the  sentiments  of  so  innume- 
rable a  multitude,  as  all  the  present  and  past  generations  of 
men. 

CHAPTER  II. 

OP  SYLLABLES,  AND  THE  RULES  FOR  ARRANGING  THEM. 

A  SYLLABLE  18  a  souncl,  either  Simple  or  com- 
pounded, pronounced  by  a  sincrle  impulse  of 
the  voice,  and  constituting  a  word,  or  part  of 
a  word  ;  as,  a,  an,  aunt. 

Spelling  is  the  art  of  rightly  dividing  words 
into  their  syllables,  or  of  expressing  a  word  by 
its  proper  letters. 

The  following  are  the  general  rules  for  the  division  of 
"words  into  syllables. 

1.  A  single  consonant  between  two  vowels,  must  be  join- 
ed to  the  latter  syllable:  as,  de-light,  bri-dal,  re-source: 
except  the  letter  x ;  as,  ex-ist,  ex-amine :  and  except  like- 
Mise  words  compounded;  as,  np-on,  un-even,  dis-ease. 

2.  Two  consonants  proper  to  begin  a  word,  must  not 
be  separated;  as,  fa-ble,  sti-fle.  But  when  they  come  be- 
tween two  vowels,  and  are  such  as  cannot  begin  a  word, 
they  must  be  divided;  as,  ut-most,  un-der,  in-sect,  er-ror, 
cof-fin. 

3.  When  three  consonants  meet  in  the  middle  of  a  word, 
if  they  can  begina  word,  and  the  preceding  vowel  be  ])ro 
nounced  long,  they  are  not  to  be  separted ;  as  de-throne,^ 
destroy.  But  when  the  vowel  of  the  preceding  syllable  is 
pronounced  short,  one  of  the  consonants  always  belongs  to 
that  syllable  ;  as,  dis-tract,  dis-prove,  dis-traiu. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  35 

4.  When  three  or  four  consonants,  which  are  not  proper 
to  begin  a  syllable,  meet  between  two  vowels,  SHch  of  them 
as  caa  begin  a  syllable  belong  to  the  latter,  the  rest  to  the 
former  syllable  :  as,  ab-stain,  com-plete,  em-broil,  dan-dier, 
dapple,  con-strain,  hand-some,  parch-ment. 

5.  Two  vowels,  not  beng  ^  diphthong,  must  be  divided 
into  separate  syllables;  as,  cru-el,  de  ni-al,  so-ci-e-ty. 

6.  Compounded  wonis  must  be  traced  into  the  simple 
words  of  which  they  are  composed;  as,  ice-house,  glow- 
worm, over-power,  never-the-less. 

7.  Grammatical,  and  other  particular  terminations,  are 
generally  separated:  as,  teach*est,  teach-eth,  teach-ing, 
teach-er,  contend-est,  great-er,  wretch-ed;  good-ness,  free- 
dom, false- hood. 

The  rules  for  dividing  words  into  syllables,  with  the 
reasons  in  support  of  them,  are  expressed  at  large  in  the 
author's  English  Spelling-book,  ^jf/i  edition,  page  151,  &c. 

CHAPTER  IIL 

OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL,  AND  THE  RULES  FOR  SPELLING  THEM« 

Words  are  articulate  sounds,  used  by  com- 
mon consent,  as  signs  of  our  ideas. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  termed  a  Monosyl« 
lable;  a  word  of  two  syllables?  a  Dissyllable;  a 
w^ord  of  three  syllables,  a  Trissyllable;  and  a 
word  of  four  or  more  syllables,  a  Polysyllable. 

All  words  are  either  primitive  or  derivative. 

A  primitive  word  is  that  which  cannot  be  re» 
duced  to  any  simpler  word  in  the  language  : 
as,  man,  2;ood,  content. 

A  derivative  word  is  that  which  may  be  re« 
duced  to  another  word  in  English  of  greater 
simplicity  ;  as,  manful,  goodness,  contentment, 
Yorkshire.^ 

*A  compound  Ttord  is  included  under  the  head  of  derivative  words  ;  as,  penknif^r 
teacup,  looking-glass  ;  may  be  reduced  to  other  words  of  greater  pimplicity. 


36  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

There  are  many  English  words  which,  though  compounds 
in  other  languages,  are  to  us  primitives  :  thus,  circumspect, 
circumvent,  circumstance,  delude,  concave,  complicate,  d:c. 
primitive  words  in  English,  will  be  found  derivatives,  whtn 
traced  in  the  Latin  tongue. 

The  orthography  of  the  English  language  is  attended 
with  much  uncertainty  and  perplexity.  But  a  considera- 
ble part  of  this  inconvenience  may  be  remedied,  by  attend- 
ing to  the  general  laws  of  formation  :  and  for  this  end,  the 
learner  is  presented  with  a  view  of  such  general  maxims  in 
spelling  primitive  and<lerivative  words,  as  have  been  almost 
universally  received. 

RULE  I. 

Monosyllables  ending  with/,  /,  or  5,  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  the  final  consonant :  as,  staff,  mill,  pass,  <fec. 
The  only  exceptions  arc,  of,  if,  as,  is,  has,  was,  yes,  his, 
thus,  us,  and  thus. 

RULE    IL 

Monosyllables  ending  with  any  consonant  but  /,  /,  or  Sy 
and  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  never  double  the  final  con- 
sonant ;  exce[)ting  add,  ebb,  butt,  egg,  odd,  err,  inn,  bunn, 
purr,  and  buzz. 

lULK  TIT. 

Words  ending  with  t/,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  form  the 
plurals  of  nouns,  the  persons  of  verbs,  verbal  nouns,  past 
participles,  comparatives,  and  superlatives,  by  changing  «/ 
into  I :  as  spy,  spies;  I  carry,  thou  carriest ;  he  carrieth,  or 
carries  ;  carrier,  carried  ;  happy,  happier,  happiest. 

The  present  participle  in  itig,  retains  the  3/,  that  i  may 
not  be  doubled  ;  as,  carry,  carrying;  bury,  burying,  &c. 

But  1/  preceded  by  a  vowel,  in  such  instances  as  the 
above,  is  not  changed ;  as,  boy,  boys :  I  cloy,  he  cloys, 
cloyed,  &c.  except  in  lay,  pay,  and  say  ;  from  which  are 
formed,  laid,  paid,  and  said;  and  their  compounds  unlaid, 
unpaid,  unsaid,  &c. 

RULE  IV. 

Words  ending  with  t/,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  upou 
assuming  an   additional  syllable  beginning  with  a  conso- 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  3T 

naiit,  commonly  change  z/  into  i;  as,  happy,  happily,  hap- 
piness. But  when  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  very 
mrely  changed  in  the  additional  syllable  :  as,  coy,  coyly; 
boy,  boyish,  boyhood;  annoy,  annoyer,  annoyance  :  joy, 
joy  less,  joyful. 

RULE   V. 

Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable, 
ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vow- 
el, double  that  consonant,  when  they  take  another  syllable, 
beginning  with  a  vowel :  ^s,  wit,  witty ;  thin,  thinnish  :  to 
abet,  an  abettor  ;  to  begin,  a  beginner. 

But  if  a  diphthong  precedes,  or  the  accent  is  on  the  pre- 
ceding syllable,  the  consonant  remains  single  :  as,  to  toilj 
toiling ; Mo  OiTer,  an  offering;  maid,  maiden,  &c. 

RULE    VI. 

Words  ending  with  any  double  letter  but  /,  and  taking 
ncss^  less,  Zy,  or  ful,  after  them,  preserve  the  letter  double  : 
as,  harmleisness,  carelessness,  carelessly,  stiffly,  successful, 
distressful,  &c.  But  those  words  which  end  with  double  /, 
and  take  ncss,  less^  ly^  ot/ul,  after  them,  generally  omit  one 
I;  as,  fulness,  skilless,  fully,  skilful,  &c. 

RULE  VII. 

Ness,  less,  ly  and  ful,  added  to  wofds  ending  with  silent 
e,  do  not  cut  it  off:  as,  paleness,  guileless,  closely,  peaceful ; 
except  in  a  few  words  ;  as,  duly,  truly,  awful. 
RULE  vm. 

Ment,  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  e,  generally  pre- 
serves the  e  from  elision ;  as,  abatement,  chastisement,  in- 
citement, &c.  The  words  judgment,  abridgment,  acknowl- 
edgement, are  deviations  from  the  rule. 

Like  other  terminations,  ment  changes  y  into  i,  when 
preceded  by  a  consonant ;  as,  accompany,  accompaniment ; 
merry,  merriment. 

RULE  IX. 

4hle  and  ihle,  when  incorporated  into  words  ending  with 
silent  €,  almost  always  cut  it  off:  as,  blame,  blaraeable; 
cure,  cureable ;  sense,  sensible.  Sic.  but  if  c  or  ^  soft  comes 
before  e  in  the  original  word,  the  e  is  then  j)reserved  in 
words  compounded  with  ahk ; as,  change^  changeable:  peace, 
[>eaceable,  &c. 

D 


KX6LISH  GRAMMAH. 


When  iJig  or  ish  is  added  (o  words  ending  with  silent  t. 
the  €  is  almost  universally  omitted:  as,  p'ace,  placing; 
lodge,  lodging ;  slave,  slaveish  ;  prude,  prudeish. 

RULE  XI. 

Compound  words  are  generally  spelled  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  simple  words  of  which  they  are  formed;  as,  foot- 
ball, windmill,  bulldog,  thereby,  hereafter. 

The  orthogrti|)hy  of  a  grept  number  of  English  words,  is 
far  from  being  uniform,  even  amongst  writers  of  distinction. 
Thus,  honour  and  hotior^  inquire  and  enquire,  negotiaic  and 
7iegociatc,  control  and  controul,  cxjicnse  and   exptnce,  allege 
and   alledge,  suiyrise  and  surjjrizc^  co?npleU  and  co?npleat, 
connexion  and  connection^  ahriilgevient  and   abiidgvient,  and 
many  other  orthographical  variations,  are  to  be  met  with  in 
the  best  modern  publications.     Some  authority  for  deciding 
difterences  of  this    nature,    appears    to  be  necessary  :    and 
where  can  we  find  one  of  equal  pretensions  with  Dr.  John- 
-on's  Dictionarv  ?  though  a  few  of  his  decisions  do  not  ap- 
rar  to  be  warranted  tiy  the  principles  of  etymology  and  an- 
logy,    the  stable  foundations   of    his   improvements. — "As 
ibe  weight  of  truth  and  reason  (says  Narrs  in  his  ''Elements 
of  Orlhoepy-')  is  irresistible,  Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary  has 
nearly  tixed  the  external  form  of  our  language.     Indeed,  so 
onvenient  is  it  to  have  one   acknowledged  standard  to  re- 
i»r  to;  50  much  preferable,  in  niiitteisof  this  nature,  in  a 
iiling   degree  of  irregularity,   to  a  continual  change,  and 
iiuitless  pursuits  of  unattainable  perfection ;   that  it   is  ear- 
nestly to  be  hoped,  that  no  author  will  henceforth,  on  light 
rounds  be  tempted  to  innovate." 

This  Dictionary,  however,  contains  some  orthographical 
iiconsistencies,  which  ought  to  be  rectified  :  such  as,  ??w- 
jwvcahU  moveable,  chastely  chasiness^j'ertilcness  fertility^  di- 
ncss  slyly,  fearlessly  fearlesticss,  yicedlcssness  ncedlesly,  I  f 
these,  and  similar  irregularities,  were  corrected  by  spelling 
the  words  analogically,  according  to  the  first  word  in  each 
])art  of  the  series,  and  agreeably  to  the  general  rules  of 
spelling,  the  Dictionary  would  doubtless,  in  these  respects, 
be  improved. 


PART  II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 
CHAPTER  L 

A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPELCil. 

THE  second  part  of  grammar  is  etymology  : 
which  treats  of  the  ditlerent  sorts  of  words:^ 
their  various  modificatioiis/and  their  derivation. 

There  are^  in  English,  nine  sorts  of  words, 
or,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  parts  of 
SPEECH  :  namely,  the  article,  the  substantive 
or  NOUN,  the  adjective,  the  pronoun,  the  verb, 
the  ADVERB,  the  preposition,  the  conjunction, 
and  the  interjection. 

1.  An  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  substan- 
tives, to  point  them  out,  and  to  show  how  far 
their  signification  extends  ;  as,  a  garden,  an  ea- 
gle, ihe  woman. 

2.  A  Substantive  or  Noun  is  the  name  of 
any  thing  that  exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any 
notions;  as,  London^  man^  virtue, 

A  substantive  may,  in  general,  be  distinguished  by  i(s  tak- 
ing an  article  before  it,  or  by  its  making  sense  of  itself;  as 
a  book^  the  surij  an  apple ;  temperancc^induslry^  chastity, 

3.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  sub- 
stantive, to  express  its  quality  :  as,  "An  indus- 
trioiis  man;  a  virtuous  woman." 

An  adjective  may  be  known  by  its  making  sense  with  the 
addition  of  the  word  thing  :  as,  a  good  thing  ;  a  bad  thing  ; 
or  of  any  particular  substantive;  as,  a  sivect  apple,  sl pleas- 
ant prospect,  a  lively  boy. 

4.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a 


^0  EIVGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

noun,  to  avoid  the  too  frequent  repetition  of 
the  same  word  ;  as,  ^'TKe  man  is  happy  ;  he  is 
benevolent ;  he  is  useful/' 

5.  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to 
DO,  or  to  sui^FER  :  as,  *'l  am;  I  rule  ;  I  am  ruled,"' 

A  verb  may  generally  be  distinguished  l;y  its  making 
sense  with  any  of  the  personal  pronuuns,  or  the  word  io  be- 
fore it  :  as,  I  walky  he  plays ^  they  write  ;  or,  to  nalk^  to  play  y 
to  write. 

6.  An  Adverb  is  a  part  of  speech  joined  to 
a  verb,  an  adjective,  and  sometinies  to  another 
adverb,  to  express  some  quality  or  circum- 
stan  e  respecting  it :  as,  *'He  reads  well;  a  tndi/ 
good  man:  lie  writes  very  correctly. 

Aq  Adverb  may  be  generally  known,  by  its  answering  to 
tlje  question.  How  ?  how  much  ?  when  ?  or  where  ?  as,  in 
xne  phnise, ''He  reads  correctly T  the  answer  to  the  question, 
how  does  he  read  ?  is,  correctly. 

1.  Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with 
one  another  and  to  show  the  relation  between 
Ihem  :  as,  **He  went  from  London  to  York ;  she 
is  above  disguise ;  **They  are  supported  by  in- 
dustry." 

APreposUion  may  he  know  n,  by  its  admitting  after  it  a 
personal  pronoun  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  tvith,  for^  to^ 
&c.  will  allow  the  objective  case  after  them;  with  Arm,  for 
lier^  to  ihariy  <fec. 

8.  A  Conjunction  is  a  part  of  speech  that  is 
chiefly  used  to  connect  sentences;  so  as  out  of 
two  or  more  sentences,  to  make  but  one :  it 
sometimes  connects  only  Vt^ords  :  as,  "Thou  and 
he  are  happy,  because  you  are  good,"  ''Two 
and  three  are  five," 


ETYMOLOGY.  41 

9.  Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between 
the  parts  of  a  sentence,  to  express  the  passions 
or  emotions  of  the  speaker:  as,  -'O  virtue! 
how  amiable  thou  art!" 

The  observations  which  have  been  made,  to  aid  learners 
in  distinguishing  the  parts  of  speech  from  one  another,  may 
afford  them  some  small  assistance  ;  but  it  will  certainly  be 
much  more  instructive,  to  distinguish  them  by  the  definitions^ 
and  an  accurate  knowledge  of  their  nature. 

In  the  following  passage,  all  the  parts  of  speech  are  ex- 
emplified. 

1272  512  4  72  8 

The  power  of  speech  is  a  faculty  peculiar  to  man  ;  and 

5  5  737        3  4  2  71 

was  bestowed  on  him  by  his  beneficent  Creator,  for  the 

4  86  4  3896656 

greatest  and  most  excellent  uses  ;  but  alas!  how  often  do  we' 

5  3    7       1  4         5  2 

pervert  it  to  the  worst  of  purposes  ! 

Ill  the  foregoing  sentence,  the  words  the,  a,  are  articles  ^ 
power,  speechy  faculty,  man.  Creator,  uses,  purposes  are  sub° 
jBtantives  ;  him,  his,  rve^  it,  are  pronouns ;  peculiar,  benefi- 
cent, greatest,  excellent,  worst,  are  adjectives ;  ?'6',  was,  be- 
stowed, do,  pervert,  are  verbs  ;  most,  how,  often,  are  adverbs  ; 
of,  to,  on,  &t/,ybr,  are  prepositions ;  and^  but,  are  conjunc- 
tions ;  and  alas  is  an  interjection. 

The  number  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  or  of  the 
parts  of  speech,  has  been  variously  reckoned  by  different 
Grammarians.  Some  have  enumerated  ten,  making  the 
participle  a  distinct  part;  some  eight,  excluding  the  parti- 
eiple,  and  ranking  the  adjective  under  the  noun  ;  some 
four,  and  others  only  two,  (the  noun  and  the  verb)  suppos- 
ing the  rest  to  be  continued  in  the  parts  of  their  division. 
We  have  followed  those  authors  who  appear  to  have  given 
them  the  most  natural  and  intelligible  distribution.  Some 
remarks  on  the  division  made  by  the  learned  Home  Tooke, 
are  contained  in  the  first  section  of  the  eleventh  chapter  of 
etymology. 

The  interjection,  indeed,  seems  scarcely  worthy  of  be^ 
Ing  considered  as  a  part  of  artificial  language  or  speech,  be« 
iog  rather  a  branch  of  that  natufal  language,  which  we  po&- 
D  2 


42  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

ses2  in  common  with  (lie  brute  creation,  and  I  y  wlikl?  w(» 
express  the  sudden  emotions  and  passions  that  actuate  our 
frame.  But,  as  it  is  used  in  written  as  well  as  oral  lan- 
guage, it  may,  in  some  measure  be  deemed  a  part  of  speech. 
— It  is,  with  us,  a  virtual  sentence,  in  which  the  noun 
and  verb  are  concealed  under  an  imperfect  or  indigested 
word. 


CHAPTER  II. 

OF    tflE    ARTICLE!?. 

An  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  subslanlives, 
to  point  Iheni  out,  and  to  show  how  far  their 
sif^nification  extends  ;  as,  a  garden,  aii  eagle, 
fhe  woman. 

In  English,  there  are  hut  two  articles,  a  and 
the  ;  a  becomes  cm  before  a  vowel,^  and  before 
a  silent  A;  as  a/i  acorn,  an  hour.  13ut  if  the  h 
be  sounded,  the  n  only  is  to  be  used ;  as,  a  hand, 
a  heart,  a  highway. 

The  inattention  of  writers  and  printers  to  this  necessary 
distinction  has  occasioned  the  trequeut  use  of  an  before  /?, 
when  it  is  to  be  pronounced;  and  this  circumstance,  more 
than  any  other,  has  probably  contributed  to  that  indistinct 
utterance,  or  total  omission,  of  the  sound  signitied  by  this 
letter,  which  very  often  occurs  amongst  readers  and  speak- 
ers. An  horse,  an  husband,  an  herald,  an  heathen,  and  ma- 
ny similar  associations,  are  frequently  to  l)e  found  in  works 
of  taste  and  merit.  To  remedy  this  evil-,  readers  should  be 
uught  to  omit,  in  all  similar  cases,  the  sound  of  the  n,  and  to 
::ive  the  h  its  full  pronunciation. 

A  or  an  is  styled  the  indefinite  article :  it  is 
used  in  a  vague  sense  to  point  out  one  single 

=*  A  instead  of  on  isDOw  used  before  words  beginning  with  u  long.    See  pa^e  28, 
' '  •/.er  U.    It  i;  also  vised  before  o-m  ;  as  njany  a  q&e. 


ETYMOLOGY.  43 

thing  of  the  kind,  in  other  respects  indeteraii- 
nate;  as,  ^^Give  me  a  book;"  ''Bring  memzap- 
ple." 

Theh  called  the  definite  article  ;  because  it 
ascertains  what  particular  thins;  oi  things  are 
meant  :  as,  'Give  me  the  hook  ;"  "Bring  me  the 
apples ;"  meaning  some  book,  or  apples  refer- 
red to. 

A  substantive  without  any  article  to  limit  it 
is  generally  taken  in  its  widest  sense  ;  as,  "A 
candid  temper  is  proper  for  man  ;"  that  is,  for 
all  mankind. 

Thf  -;  r  r-r.  .^pg  ^^^jj  importance  of  the  articles  will  be 
seen  i.  'owing  examples:  "The  son  of  a  king — the 

son  of  :;5e  k  ,.g — n  sou  of  the  king.'*  Each  of  these  three 
phiasi^s  has  an  entirely  difTerent  meanings,  through  the  dif- 
ferent appiication  of  the  arlicles<%  and  the, 

''Thou  art  a  mao,"  is  a  very  general  and  harmless  position; 
but,  "Thou  art  the  man,"  (as  Nathan  said  to  David,)  is  an 
assertion  capable  of  striking  terror  and  remorse  into  the  heart. 

The  article  is  omitted  before  nouns  that  imply  the  differ- 
ent virtues,  vices,  passi^;ns,  qualities,  sciences,  arts,  metalg, 
herbs,  &c.  ;  as,  prudence  is  commendable  ;  falsehood  is 
odious;  anger  ought  to  be  avoided  ;"  &c.  It  is  not  prefixed 
(o  a  proper  name  ;  as,  "Alexander,"  (because  that  of  i<self 
denotes  a  determ-nate  individual  or  particular  thing.)  except 
for  the  sake  of  distinguishing  a  particular  family;  as,  "He 
is  a  Howard,  or  of  the  family  of  the  Howards  ;"  or  by  way 
of  eminence  ;  as  "Every  man  is  not  a  Newton  ;"  "He  has 
the  courage  of  an  Achilles  :''  or  when  some  noun  is  under- 
stood ;  "He  sailed  down  ike  (river)  Thames,  in  ^Ae  (ship) 
Britannia." 

When  an  adjective  is  used  with  the  noun  to  which  the 
article  relates,  it  is  placed  between  the  article  and  the  noun; 
as,  "a  i>^ood  man,"  "an  agreeable  woman,"  "the  best  friend." 
On  some  occasions,  however,  the  adjective  precedes  ix  or  aw  ; 
as,  '-such  a  sham* ,"  "as  great  a  man  a?^  Alexander,"  "too 
careless  imivMhoY^''' 


44  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  indefinite  article  can  be  joined  to  substantives  in  the 
singular  number  only ;  the  definite  article  may  be  joined 
also  to  plurals. 

But  there  appears  to  be  a  remarkable  exception  to  this 
rule,  in  the  use  of  the  adjectives /ew  and  many^  (the  latter 
chiefly  with  the  word  great  before  it,)  which,  though  joined 
with  plural  substantives,  yet  admit  of  the  singular  article 
a:  as,  a  few  men;  a  great  many  men. 

The  reason  of  it  is  manifest,  from  the  effect  which  the  ar- 
tide  has  in  these  phrases;  it  means  a  small  or  great  num- 
ber collectively  taken,  and  therefore  gives  the  idea  of  a 
whole,  that  is,  of  unity.  Thus  likewise,  a  dozen,  a  score, 
a  hun<lred,  or  a  thousand,  is  one  whole  number,  an  aggre- 
gate of  many  collectively  taken  ;  and  therefore  still  retains 
the  article  a,  though  joined  as  an  adjective  to  a  plural  sub- 
stantive ;  as,  a  hundred  years,  &c. 

The  indefinite  article  is  sometimes  placed  between  the 
adjective  many^  and  a  singular  noun  :  as, 

"Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene, 
"The  dark  unfathom'd  caves  of  ocean  bear  : 
"Full  many  a  Jlow'r  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
"And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air." 

In  these  lines,  the  phrase  many  a  gan  and  many  a  Jiorv'r, 
refer  to  tnany  gems  and  many  jUnvers^  separately,  not  col- 
lectively considered. 

The  definite  article  the  is  frequently  applied  the  adverbs 
in  the  comparative  and  superlative  degree  ;  and  its  effect  is 
to  mark  the  degree  the  more  strongly,  and  to  define  it  the 
more  precisely:  as,  ''The  more  I  examine  it,  the  better  \ 
like  it.     I  like  this  the  least  of  any. 

CHAPTER  III. 

OF    SUBSTANTIVES. 

Sect.  1 .     Of  Substantives  in  general. 

A  Substantive  or  Noun  is  the  name  of  any 
thing  that  exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any  no- 
tion :  as,  London^  man^  virtue. 


ETYMOLOGY.  45 

Substantives  are  either  proper  or  common. 

Proper  names  or  substantives,  are  the  names 
appropriated  to  individuals :  as^  George^  Lon- 
don, Thames. 

Common  names  or  substantives,  stand  for 
kinds  containing  many  sorts,  or  for  sorts  con- 
taining many  individuals  under  them ;  as,  ani- 
mal, man,  tree,  &lc. 

When  proper  names  have  an  article  annexed 
to  them,  they  are  used  as  common  names  :  as, 
"*He  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age  ;  he  is  reading  the 
lives  of  the  Twelve  Ccesars.'^ 

Common  names  may  also  be  used  to  signify 
individuals,  by  the  addition  of  articles  or  pro- 
nouns ;  as.  The  boy  is  studious;  that giii  is  dis- 
creet."''^ 

To  substantives  belong  gender,  number,  and 
case  ;  and  they  are  all  of  the  third  person 
when  spoken  0/,  and  of  the  second  when  spoken 
to,  as,  "Blessings  attend  us  on  every  side  :  be 
grateful,  children  of  men  !"  that  is,  ye  children 
of  men. 

Sect.  2.     Of  Gender. 

(Lender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  with  re- 
gard to  sex.  There  are  three  genders,  the 
MASCULINE,  the  FEMININE,  and  the  neuter. 

The  Masculine  Gender  denotes  animals  of 

*Noims  may  also  be  divided  into  the  following  classes:  Col" 
iective  nouns,  or  nouns  of  multitude;  as,  the  people,  the  parlia- 
ment, the  army  ;  Abstract  nouns,  or  the  names  of  qualities  ab- 
stracted from  their  suhstaRres  ;  as,  knowledge,  goodness,  white- 
ness ;  Verbal  or  participial  nouns  ;  as,  beginning,  reading,  wri- 
ting. 


46 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


the  male  kind  ;  as,  a  man^  a  horse,  a  bull.  The 
Feminine  Gender  signifies  animals  of  the  fe- 
male kind  ;  as,  a  woman,  a  duck,  alien. 

The  Neuter  Gender  denotes  objects  which 
are  neither  males  nor  females;  as,  a  field,  a 
house,  a  garden. 

Some  substantives,  naturally  neuter,  are,  by 
a  figure  of  speech,  converted  into  the  mascu- 
line or  feminine  gender  ;  as,  when  we  say  of 
the  sun,  he  is  setting  ;  and  of  a  ship,  she  sails 
well. 


Figuratively,  in  the  English  tongue,  we  commonly  give 
the  masculine  gender  to  nouns  which  are  conspicuous  for  the 
attributes  of  imparting  or  communicating,  and  which  are  by 
nature  strong  and  efificacious.  Those,  again,  are  made  fem- 
inine, which  are  conspicuous  for  the  attributes  of  contain- 
ing or  bringing  forth,  or  which  are  [leculiarly  beautiful  or 
amiable.  Upon  these  principles,  the  sun  is  said  to  be  mas- 
culine ;  and  the  moon,  beiug  the  receptacle  of  the  sun's  light, 
to  be  feminine.  The  earth  is  generally  feminine.  A  ship, 
a  country,  a  city,  ^Q.  are  likewise  made  feminine,  being  re- 
ceivers or  containers.  Time  is  always  masculine,  on  ac- 
count of  its  mighty  efficacy.  Virtue  is  feminine  from  its 
beauty,  and  its  being  tbe  object  of  love.  Fortune  and  the 
church  are  generally  put  in  the  feminine  gender. 

The  English  language  has  three  methods  of  distinguishing 
the  sex,  viz. 

1.  By  different  words:  as, 


Male. 

Female, 

Male. 

Female. 

Bachelor. 

Maid. 

Cock. 

Hen. 

Boar. 

Sow. 

Dog. 

Bitch. 

Boy. 

Girl. 

Drake. 

Duck. 

Brother. 

Sister. 

Earl. 

Countess. 

Bucfe. 

Doe. 

Father. 

Mother. 

Bull. 

Cow. 

Friar. 

Nun. 

Bullock  or  > 

Heifer. 

Gander. 

Goose . 

Steer.         < 

Hart. 

Roe. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

4: 

MaU , 

Fe?nale. 

Male. 

Female. 

Horse. 

Mare. 

Ram. 

Ewe. 

Husband. 

Wife. 

^  Songstress  or 

King. 

Queen. 

Singer. 

(  Singer. 

Lad. 

Lass. 

Sloven. 

Slut. 

Lord. 

Lady. 

Son» 

Daughter. 

Man. 

Woman. 

Stag. 

Hind. 

Master. 

Mistress. 

Uncle. 

Aunt. 

Milter. 

Spawner. 

Wizard. 

Witch. 

Nephew. 

Niece. 

2. 

By  a  difference  of  termination  :  aj, 

Abbot. 

Abbess. 

Landgrave. 

Landgravine. 

Actor. 

Actress. 

Lion. 

Lioness. 

Administrator.  AdministratrixMarquis. 

Marchioness^ 

Adulterer. 

Adultress. 

Mastep. 

Mistress. 

Ambassador. 

Ambassadress 

5.  Mayor. 

Mayoress. 

Arbiter. 

Arbitress. 

Patron. 

Patroness. 

Baron. 

Baroness. 

Peer. 

Peeress. 

Bridegroom, 

Bride. 

Poet. 

Poetess. 

Benefactor. 

Benefactress. 

Priest. 

Priestess. 

Caterer. 

Cateress. 

Prince. 

Princess. 

Chanter. 

Chantress. 

Prior. 

Prioress. 

Conductor. 

Conductress. 

Prophet. 

Prophetess. 

Count. 

Countess. 

Protector. 

Protectress. 

Deacon. 

Deaconess. 

Shepherd. 

Shepherdess. 

Duke. 

Duchess. 

Songster. 

Songstress. 

Elector. 

Electress. 

Sorcerer. 

Sorceress. 

Emperor. 

Empress. 

Sultan. 

\  Sultaness. 
(  Sultana. 

Enchanter. 

Enchantress. 

Executor. 

Executrix. 

Tiger. 

Tigress. 

Governor. 

Governess. 

Traitor. 

Traitress. 

Heir. 

Heiress. 

Tutor. 

Tutoress. 

Hero. 

Heroine. 

Viscount. 

Viscountess* 

Hunter. 

Huntress. 

Votary. 

Votaress. 

Host. 

Hostess. 

Widower. 

Widow. 

Jew. 

Jewess. 

3.  By  a  noun,  pronoun  or  adjective,  being  prefixed  to  the 
substantive :  as, 

A  cock -sparrow.  A  hen-sparrow. 

A  man-servant,  A  maid-servant. 


■i^  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

A  he*goat.  A  she-goat. 

A  he-bear.  A  she-bear. 

A  male-child.  A  female-child. 

Male  descendants.  Female  descendants. 

It  sometimes  happens,  that  the  same  noun  is  either  mas- 
culine or  feminine.  The  \Kon\s,  parent,  child,  cousin,  friendy 
neighbor,  servant,  and  several  others,  are  used,  indiiferently 
for  males  or  females. 

Nouns  with  variable  terminations  contribute  to  concise- 
ness and  perspecnity  of  expression.  We  have  only  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  them  to  make  us  feel  our  want,  for  when 
we  say  of  a  woman,  she  is  a  philopher,  an  astronomer,  a 
builder,  a  weaver,  we  perceive  an  impropriety  in  the  ter- 
mination, which  we  cannot  avoid;  but  we  can  say,  that  she 
is  a  botanist,  a  student,  a  witness,  a  scholar,  an  orphan,  a 
companion,  because  these  terminations  have  not  annexed  to 
them  the  notion  of  sex. 

gECT.  3.     Of  Number. 

Number  is  Ibe  consideration  of  an  object,  as 
one  or  more. 

Substantives  are  of  Ivvo  nunribers,  the  singu- 
lar and  plural. 

The  singular  number  expresses  but  one  ob- 
ject ;  as,  a  chair,  a  table. 

Tiie  plural  number  signifies  more  objects 
than  one  ;  as,  chairs,  tables. 

Some  nouns,  from  the   nature  of  the  things 
which  they  express,  are  used  only  in  the  singu- 
lar form ;  as,  wheat,  pitch,  gold,  sloth, pride,  &c.; 
others,    only  in  the  plural  form ;  as,  bellows, . 
scissors,  lungs,  riches,  &:c. 

Some  words  are  the  same  in  both  numbers ; 
as,  deer,  sheep,  swine,  &c. 

The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  generally 
formed  by  adding  s  to  the  singular,  as,  dove, 


ETYMOLOGY.  40 

doves ;  face,  faces  ;  thought,  thoughts.  But 
when  the  substantive  singular  ends  in  x,  ch 
soft,  sh,  ss,  or  s,  we  add  es  in  the  plural  j  as  box, 
boxes;  church,  churches;  lash,  lashes;  kiss, 
kisses;  rebus,  rebuses.  If  the  singular  ends  in 
ch  hard,  the  plural  is  formed  by  adding  s;  as, 
monarch,  raonarchs ;  distich,  distiches. 

Nouns  which  end  in  o,  have  sometimes  es  added  fo  the 
pluml ;  as,  cargo,  echo,  hero,  negro,  manifesto,  potatoe,volca« 
no,  wo ;  and  sometimes  only  s  ;  as,  folio,  nuncio,  punctilio, 
seraglio. 

Nouns  ending  if/,  orfe,  are  rendered  plural  by  the  change 
of  tht)se  terminations  into  vcs ;  as,  loaf,  loaves  ; — half,  halves; 
wife,  wives  ;  except  grief,  relief,  reproof,  and  several  others, 
which  form  the  plural  by  the  addition  of  s.  Those  which 
end  in  Jf,  have  the  regular  plural ;  as  ruff,  ruffs ;  except  staff, 
staves. 

Nouns  tvhich  have  y  in  the  singular,  with  no  other  vowel 
in  the  same  syllable,  change  it  into  ies  in  the  plural :  as, 
beauty,  beauties;  fly,  flies.  But  the  y  is  not  changed,  when 
there  is  another  vowel  in  the  syllable :  as  key,  keys  ;  delay, 
delays;  attorney,  attorneys. 

Some  nouns  become  plural  by  changing  the  a  of  the  sin- 
gular intoe  :  hs,  man,  men  ;  woman  women  ;  alderman,  al- 
dermen. The  words,  ox  and  child,  form  oxen  and  children; 
brother,  makes  either  brothers  or  brethren. 

Sometimes  the  diphthong  oo  is  changed  to  ee  in  the  plural  t 
as  foot,  feet ;  goose,  geese  ;  tooth,  teeth.  Louse  and  mouse 
make  lice  and  mice.  Penny  makes  pence ;  or  pennies, 
when  the  coin  is  meant ;  die,  dice  (for  play;)  die,  dies  (for 
coining.) 

It  is  agreeable  to  analogy,  and  the  practice  of  the  gener- 
ality of  correct  writers,  to  construe  the  following  words, 
as  plural  nouns;  pains,  riches,  arms  :  and  also,  mathematics^ 
metaphysics, politics i  ethics,  optics^ pneumatics ^vf\\\\  other  sim- 
ilar names  of  sciences. 

Dr.  Johnson  says  that  the  adjective  nmch  is  sometimes  a 
term  of  number  as  well  as  of  quantity.  This  may  account 
for  the  instances  we  meet  with  of  its  associating  \yi\.h  paim. 


^-0 


ENGLISH  GRAxMMAR. 


as  a  plural  Doun  :  as,  "much  pains."     The  cennexion,  how- 
ever is  not  to  be  recommended. 

The  word  news  is  now  almost  universally  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  singular  number. 

The  noun  means  is  used  both  in  the  singular  and  the  plu- 
ral number. 

The  following  words,  which  have  been  adopted  from  the 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin  language,  are  thus  distinguished, 
with  respect  to  number. 

Singular,  Plural. 

Genius.  Geuii.^ 

Genus. 


Singular. 
Cherub. 
Beraph. 
Antithesis. 
Automaton. 
Basis. 
Crisis. 
Criterion. 
Dijeresis. 
Ellipsis. 
Empiiasis. 
Hypothesis. 
Matamor- 

phosis. 


Plural. 

Cherubim. 

Seraphim. 

Antitheses. 

Automata. 

"'^lasts. 

Crists. 

Criteria. 

Diftirises. 

Elli[>ses. 

En)(»hhse8. 

Hypothtses. 

Metamor- 
phoses. 


Phounomenon.  Pha^nomena. 


Datum. 
Effluvium. 

Ecomium. 

Erratum. 


Data. 
Effluvium. 
Encomia  or 
ncomiums. 
Errata. 


\i 


Index. 

Lamina. 
IMedium. 
Magus. 
Memoran- 
dum. 

Appendix. 

Arcanum. 

Axis. 

Calx. 

Radius. 

Stamen. 

Stratum. 

Vortex. 


Genera. 

5  Indices  or 

\  indexes.! 

Limna?. 

Media. 

Magi. 

Memoranda  or 

Memorandums. 
C  Appendices  or 
\  Appendixes. 

Arcana. 
Axes. 

Calces. 

Radii. 

Stamina. 

Strata. 

Vortices. 


Some  words  derived  from  the  learned  languages,  are  con- 
fined to  the  plural  number  :  as,  antipodes,  credenda,  literati, 
minutiae. 

The  following  nouns  being,  in  Latin,  both  singular  and 
plural,  are  used  in  the  same  manner  when  adopted  into  our 
tongue  :  hiatus,  ap[)aratu3j  series,  species. 

Sect.  4.     Of  Case. 
In   English,  substantives  have  three  cases, 

*Gf?iii,  when  denoting  aerial  spirits  :  Geniuses  when  signifying  persons  of  genius, 
^irultxrs,  \vheu  it  signikes  poiuter^,  or  tables  of  coateats  ;  IndUcs^  when  referrins 
to  AlS«brair.  fjuauUties. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


/>! 


the  iiominalive,  the  possessive,  an  1  the  objec- 
tive.'^ 

The  nominative  case  simply  expresses  the 
name  of  a  thin;^;,  or  the  subject,  of  the  verb  :  as, 
"The  boy  plays ;"  ^"fhe  girls  learn." 

Tlie  possessive  case  expresses  the  relation  of 
property  or  possession ;  and  has  an  apostrophe 
v.ith  the  letter  5  coming  after  it:  as,  "The 
scoJas  'h  ciuty  ;  <*My  father's  house." 

When  the  plural  ends  in  .9,  tlie  others  is 
omitted,  but  tiie  apostrophe  is  retained  :  as, 
"On  eagles'  wings  ;"  "Tlie  drapers'  company," 

Sometimes  also,  when  the  singular  terminates 
in  ssy  the  apostrophe  s  is  not  added:  as,  "For 
goodness'  sake;"  "For righteousness'  sake." 

The  objective  case  expresses  the  object  of 
an  action,  or  oi  a  resolution;  and  generally 
follows  a  verb  active,  or  a  preposition  :  as, 
"John  assists  Charles ;"  "They  live  in  London." 

English  substantives  are  declined  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner. 


JS^ominciiice  Case. 

Possessive  Case, 
Objective  Case. 
Mominative  Case. 
Possessive  Case. 
Objective  Case. 


A  mother. 
A  mother's 
A  mother. 
The  man. 
The  man's 
The  man. 


Mothers, 
Mother's. 
Mothers. 
The  men. 
The  men's. 
The  men. 


The  English  language,  to  express  different  connexions 
and  relations  of  one  thing  to  another,  uses  for  the  most 
part,  prepositions.  The  Greek  and  Latin  among  the  an- 
cient, and  some  too  among  the  modern   languages,  as  the 


*The  possissive  is  zometieras  called  the  genitive  case:  and  the  obfcctive  the 
3u;cusatiYe.  * 


52  EN€LISH  GRAMMAR. 

Germau,  vary  the  termination  or  ending  of  the  substantive, 
to  answer  the  same  purpose  ;  an  example  of  which,  in  the 
Latioj  is  inserted,  as  explanatory  of  tlie  nature  and  use  ef 
cases,  viz. 

Sifigidar, 

Ncminalive.  Dominus,  A  Lord. 

Genitive.  Domini,  Lord's,  ofa  Lord. 

Dative.  ^  Domino,  To  a  Lord. 

Accusative.  Dominum,  A  Lord. 

Vocative.  Domine,  O  Lord. 

Ablative,  Domino,  By  a  Lord. 

'Plural. 

Nominative.  Domini,  Lords. 

Genitive.  Dominouu?.!,  Lords',  of  Lords. 

Dative.  Dominis,  ToLords. 

Accusative.  Dominos,  Lords. 

Vocative.  Domini,  O  Lords. 

Ablative.  Dominis,  By  Lord. 

Some  writers  think,  that  the  relaticms  sia;nified  by  the 
addition  of  articles  and  prejwaitions  to  ihe  noun,  may  pro- 
perly be  denominated  cases,  in  English ;  and  that  on  this 
principle,  there  are,  in  our  ianpjuage,  as  many  cases  as  in 
ihe  Latin  tongue.  But  to  this  mode  of  forming  cases  for 
our  substantives,  there  are  strong  objections,  it  \vould, 
indeed,  be  a  formal  and  useless  arrangement  of  nouns,  ar- 
ticles and  prepositions.  If  an  arrangment  of  this  nature 
were  to  be  considered  as  constituting  cases,  the  English 
language  would  have  a  much  greater  number  of  them  than 
the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues  :  for,  as  every  preposition  has 
its  distinct  meaning  and  effect,  every  combination  of  a  pre- 
position and  article  with  the  noun,  would  form  a  different 
relation  and  would  constitute  a  distinct  case.  This  would 
encumber  our  language  with  many  new  terms,  and  a  heavy 
and  useless  load  of  distinctions.* 

-"If  cases  are  to  he  distinguished  by  the  diJereat  sijBjnifications  of  the  noun,  or  by 
.1  e  different  relations  it  may  bear  to  the  governing  word,  then  ne  have  in  our  lan- 
guage as  many  ca^es  almost,  as  there  are  prepositions  ••  and,  al»ove  a  man,  heneath  & 
man,  beyond  a  man,  rouD(i  about  a  man,  within  a  man,  without  a  man,  &c.  shall  be 
rases,  as  well  as  of  <i  aiofl,  to  a  man,  &c.  shall  be  cases,  as  Tvell  ai  of  a  man,  to  a  man, 
)'^d  vrith  a  iran."  Dr.  BeattU; 


EfYMOLOGY,  ^3 

On  the  principle  of  imitating  other  languages  in  names 
and  form?,  without  a  correspondence  in  nature  and  idiom, 
we  might  adopt  a  number  of  declensions,  as  well  as  a  va* 
riety  of  cases,  for  English  substantives.  Thus,  five  or  six 
declensions,  distinguished  according  to  the  various  modes 
of  forming  the  plural  of  substantives,  with  at  least  half  a 
dozen  cases  to  each  declension,  would  furnish  a  complete 
arrangement  of  English  nouns,  in  all  their  trappings.  See 
an  this  subject,  the  fifth  and  ninth  sections  of  the  sixth 
chapter  of  Etymology. 

But  though  this  variety  of  cases  does  not  at  all  corres- 
pond with  the  idiom  of  our  language,  there  seems  to  bd 
great  propriety  in  admitting  a  case  in  English  substan- 
lives,  which  shall  serve  to  denote  the  objects  of  active 
verbs  and  of  [)repositions  ;  and  which  is,  therefore,  pro- 
perly termefi  the  objective  case.  The  general  idea  of  case, 
doubtless,  has  a  reference  to  the  termination  of  the  noun; 
but  there  are  many  instances,  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  la 
w  hich  the  mominative  and  accusative  cases  have  precisely 
the  same  form,  and  are  distinguished  only  by  the  relation 
they  bear  to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  We  are  there- 
fore warranted  by  analogy,  in  applying  this  principle  to 
our  own  language,  as  far  as  utility,  and  the  idiom  of  it,  will 
admit.  Now  it  is  obvious,  that  in  English,  a  noun  govern- 
ed by  an  active  verb,  or  a  preposition,  is  very  differenlly 
circumstanced,  from  a  noun  in  the  nominative,  or  in  the 
possessive  case;  and  that  a  comprehensive  case,  eorrespon* 
dent  to  that  difference,  must  be  useful  and  proper.  The^ 
business  of  parsing,  and  of  showing  the  connexion  and  de- 
pendence of  words,  will  be  most  conveniently  accomplisli* 
ed  by  the  adoption  of  such  a  case;  and  the  irregularity 
of  having  our  nouns  sometimes  placed  in  a  situation,  ia 
^hich  they  cannot  be  said  to  be  in  any  case,  at  all,  will  be 
avoided.  , 

The  author  of  this  w^ork  long  doubted  the  propriety  of 
assigning  to  English  substantives  an  objective  case  :  but  a 
renew^ed  critical  examination  of  the  subject :  an  examina^ 
tion  to  which  he  was  prompted  by  the  extensive  and  in=» 
creasing  demand  for  the  grammar,  has  produced  in  his  mind 
a  full  persuasion,  that  tlie  nouns  ofour  lacguage  {^«  entitifd 
to  thitcomprehentiv^o^eetiyecasf^;'  « •  ■  ^ 

E  2 


54  EiVGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

When  the  thing  to  which  another  is  said  to  belong,  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  circumlocution,  or  by  many  terms,  Ihe  sign  of 
the  possessive  case  is  commonly  added  to  the  last  term  :  as, 
'*The  king  of  Great  Britain's  dominions." 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  two  nouns  in  the  possessive 
case,  immediately  succeed  each  other,  in  the  following 
form :  "My  friend's  wife's  sister ;"  a  sense  which  would 
be  better  expressed  by  saying,  "the  sister  of  ray  friend's 
Tvife  :"  or,  "my  friend's  sister  in  law."  Some  grammarians 
flay,  that  in  each  of  the  following  phrases,  viz.  "A  book  of 
my  brother's,"  "A  servant  of  the  queen's,"  "A  soldier  of  the 
king's,"  there  are  two  genitive  cases;  the  first  phrase  imply- 
ing, "one  of  the  books  of  my  brother,"  the  next,  "one  of  the 
servants  of  the  qeeen  ;"  and  the  last,  "one  of  the  soldiers  of 
the  king."  l^ut  as  the  preposition  governs  the  olijective 
case;  and  as  there  are  not,  in  each  of  these  sentences,  two 
apostrophes  with  the  letter  s  coming  after  them,  we  cannot 
with  propriety  say,  that  there  arc  two  genitive  cases* 

CHAPTER  IV. 

OF   ADJECTIVES. 

Sect.  1.     Of  ihe  nature  of  Ad^eciiveSy  and  the  degrees  of 
comparison. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  substan- 
tive, to  express  its  quality  :  as,  "an  industrious 
man  ;"  "At'/r/woz^^  woman;    "A  benevolent  mind." 

In  English,  the  adjective  is  not  varied  on  ac- 
count of  gender,  number  or  case.  Thus  we 
say,  "A  careless  boy  ;  careless  girls." 

The  only  variation  which  it  admits,  is  that  of 
the  degrees  of  comparison. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  three  degrees 
of  comparison  :  the  positive,  the  compara- 
tive, and  the  superlative. 

Grammarians  have  generally  enumerated  these  three  de- 
{Tees  of  QOiDp^nsoa }  but  ib€  tot  ol  tbembs^s  b^ea  tbougbi 


ETYMOLOGY.  ^ 

jy  soaie  writers  to  be,  improperly,  termed  a  degree  of  com- 
parison; as  it  seems  to  be  nothing  more  than  the  simple  form 
of  the  adjective,  and  not  to  imply  either  comparison  or  de- 
gree. This  opinion  may  be  well  founded  unless  the  adjec'- 
live  be  supposed  to  imply  comparison  or  degree,  by  con- 
taining a  secret  or  general  reference  to  other  things  :  as, 
when  we  say,  "he  is  a  tall  man,"  "this  is  a  fair  day,"  we 
make  some  reference  to  the  ordinary  size  of  men,  and  to  dif- 
ferent weather. 

The  Positive  state  expresses  the  quality  of 
an  object,  without  any  increase  or  diminution  : 
as,  good,  wise,  great. 

The  Comparative  degree  increases  or  lessens 
the  positive  in  signification  :  as.  wiser,  greater, 
less  wise. 

The  Superlative  degree  increases  or  lessens 
the  positive  to  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  : 
as,  wisest,  greatest,  least  wise. 

The  simple  word,  or  positive,  becomes  the 
comparative,  by  adding  r  or  er  ;  and  the  super- 
lative by  adding  st  or  est  to  the  end  of  it :  as, 
wise,  wiser,  wisest ;  great,  greater,  greatesto 
And  the  adverbs  more  and  most^  placed  before 
the  adjective,  have  the  same  effect ;  as,  wise, 
more  wise,  most  wise. 

The  termination  ish^  may  be  accounted  in  some  sort  a  de- 
gree of  comparison,  by  which  the  signification  is  diminished 
below  the  positive ;  as,  blacky  blackish^  or  tending  to  black 
Dess ;  salt,  saltish,  or  having  a  little  taste  of  salt. 

The  word  rather  is  very  properly  used  to  express  a  small 
degree  or  excess  of  a  quality  ;  as,  "She  is  rather  profuse  ia 
her  expenses.'' 

Monosyllables,  for  the  most  part,  are  compared  by  er  and 
est;  uid  dissyllables  by  more  and  most:  as,  mild,  milder, 
mildest  5  fiugaJ,  more  frugal,  most  frugal.    DissyllaWea  end- 


56  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

ins?  in y/  as,  happy,  lovely;  and  in  le^  after  a  mute,  ag, 
able,  ample;  or  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  as,  discreet, 
polite ;  easily  admit  of  er  and  est ;  as,  happier,  happiest ; 
abler,  ablest  ;  politer,  politest.  Words  of  more  than  two 
sylia^>les,  hardly  ever  admit  of  those  terminalions. 

In  some  words  the  superlative  is  formed  by  adding;  the  ad- 
verb most  to  the  end  of  them ;  as,  nethermost,  uttermost,  or 
utmost,  undermost,  uppermost,  foremost. 

In  English,  as  in  most  languao:es,  there  are  some  words 
of  very  common  use,  (in  which  the  caprice  of  custom  is  apt 
to  ffet  the  better  of  analogy,)  that  are  irregular  in  this  res- 
pect :  as,  '*good,  better,  best ;  bad,  worse,  vvorst ;  little,  less, 
least;  much  or  many,  more,  most;  near,  nearer,  nearest  or 
next;  late,  later,  latest  or  last;  old,  older  or  elder,  oldest  or 
eldest  ;"  and  a  few  others. 

An  adjective  put  without  a  substantive,  with  the  definite 
article  before  it,  Ijecomes  a  substantive  in  sense  and  mean- 
ing, and  is  written  as  a  suKslantive;  as,  "Providence  re- 
wards the  s^oo(U  and  pimishes  the  bad,^ 

Various  nouns  placed  betore  other  nouns,  assume  the  na** 
ture  of  adjectives:  as,  »ea  fis!  *  •  vessel,  corn  field,  mea- 
dow ground,  &c. 

Numeral  adjectives  are  either  cardinaK  or  ordinal ;  cardi- 
Dal,  as,  one,  two,  three,  Arc.  ordinal,  as,  first,  second,  third,  8cc. 

Sect.  2.     Remarks  oh  the  subject  of  Cotnparison. 

If  we  consider  the  subject  of  comparison  attentively,  we 
Bhall  perceive  that  the  (degrees  of  it  are  intiuite  in  number,, 
or  at  least  indelfnite. —  A  mountain  is  larger  t)mn  a  mite; — 
by  how  many  degrees?  How  much  bigger  is  the  earth  than 
a  grain  of  sand  ?  By  how  many  degrees  was  Socrates  wiser 
than  Alcibiades  ?  Or  by  how  many  is  snow  whiter  than  this 
paper?  It  is  plain,  that  to  these  and  the  like  questions,  na 
dijinitc  ans^:verscan  be  returned. 

In  quantities,  however,  that  may  be  exactly  measured,  the 
degrees  of  excess  may  be  exactly  ascertained.  A  foot  is 
just  twelve  times  as  long  as  an  inch  ;  and  an  hour  is  sixty 
times  the  length  of  a  minute.  But,  in  regard  to  qualiiuSy 
and  to  th:^se  quantities  which  cannot  lie  measured  exactly, 
it  is  impossible  to  say  how  many  degrees  may  be  cooapre*^ 
bended  in  the  comparative  excess. 


ETYMOLOGY.  5T 

But  thougli  these  degrees  are  iiifinife  or  indefinite  in  fact, 
they  cannot  be  so  in  language  ;  nor  would  it  be  convenient, 
if  language  were  to  express  many  of  th^im.  In  regard  to 
unmeasured  quantities  and  qualities,  the  degrees  of  more  ami 
less,  (besides  those  marked  above,)  mdy  be  expressed  intel- 
ligibly, at  least,  if  not  accurately,  by  certain  adverbs,  or 
words  of  like  import  :  as,  'sSocrates  was  much  wiser  than  Al- 
cibiades  ;"  "Snow  is  a  ^r^af  deal  whiter  than  this  paper;" 
"Epaminondas  was  by  far  the  most  accomplished  of  the 
Thebans;"  "The  evening  star  in  a  i;<:^ri/ splendid  object^  but 
the  sua  is  iiicomparably  more  s[)iendid ;"  "The  Deity  is  infi-^ 
nitely  greater  than  the  greatest  of  his  creatures."  The  in- 
accuracy of  these,  and  the  like  expressions,  is  not  a  mate- 
rial inconvenience;  and  if  it  were,  it  is  unavoidable;  fop 
human  speech  can  only  express  human  thought ;  and  where 
thought  is  necessarily  inacc4jrate,  language  must  be  so  too. 

When  the  word  very  exceedingly y  or  anj'  other  of  similar 
import,  is  put  before  the  positive,  it  is  called  by  some  writers 
the  superlative,  which  has  been  ready  mentioned,  and  is 
called  the  superlative  of  comparison.  Thus  very  eloquent^ 
is  termed  the  superlative  of  eminence  ;  most  eloquent^  the  su- 
perlative of  comparison.  In  the  superlative  of  eminence, 
something  of  comparison  is,  however,  remotely  or  indirect- 
ly intimated ;  for  we  cannot  reasonably  call  a  man  very  el- 
oquent, without  comparing  his  eloquence  with  the  eloquence 
of  o(  her  men. 

The  comj^arative  may  be  so  employed,  as  to  express  the 
same  pre-eminence  or  inferiority  as  the  superlative.  Thus 
the  sentence,  "Of  all  acquirements,  virtue  is  Xhemost  valua* 
ble,'^  conveys  the  same  sentiment  as  the  following  j  "Virtue 
is  more  valnable  than  every  other  acquirement." 


CHAPTER.  V. 

OF  PRONOUNS. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,, 
to  aval  1  the  too  frequent  repetition  of  the 
sa.nevvord:  as,  "the  man  is  happy;  he  is  be^ 
nevolent ;  he  is  useful." 


58  EXGLISII  GRAMMAR. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  pronouns,  viz.  (he 
PERsoxAL,  the  RELATIVE,   and  the  adjective 

FROX^OUNS. 

Sect.  1.     Of  the  Personal  Pronouns. 
There  are  five  Personal  Pronouns,  viz.  lythou^ 

he^she^  it ;  with  their  plurals  wc,  yc  or  you.,  they. 
Personal  pronouns  adtoit  of  person,  number, 

gender  and  case. 

The  prrsons  of  pronouns  are  three  in  each 

number,  viz. 

/,  is  the  first  person  ) 

T/i02i,  is  tlje  second  person  >  Singular. 

jF/s  she  or  //,  the  third  person       ) 

^Fi?,  is  the  first  person  ) 

yic,  or  you^  is  the  second  person  /  Plural. 

They.,  is  the  third  person  ) 

This  account  of  persons  will  be  very  intelligible,  when 
we  reflect,  that  there  are  three  persons  who  m:\y  he  the  sub- 
ject of  any  discourse  ;  first,  the  person  who  speaks,  m  ly 
speak  of  himself;  seconilly,  he  may  speak  of  the  person  to 
whom  headdresses  himself;  thirdly,  he  may  speak  of  some 
other  person  :  and  as  the  speakers,  the  persons  spoken  io^ 
and  the  other  persons  spoken  of,  may  he  many,  so  each  of 
these  persons  must  have  the  plural  number. 

The  number  of  pronouns,  like  those  of  sub- 
jstantives,  are  two,  the  singular  and  the  plural: 
as,  /,  thou.,  he  ;  we^  ye  or  you^  they. 

Gender  has  respect  only  to  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  pronouns,  he.,  she.,  it.  He  is  mas- 
culine ;  she  is  feminine  ;  it  is  neuter. 

The  persons  speaking  and  spoken  to,  being  at  the  same 
time  the  subjects  of  the  discourse,  are  supposed  to  be  pre- 
sent, from  which,  and  other  circumstancs^,  their  sex  is  com- 


ETYMOLOGY. 


59 


monly  known,  and  needs  not  to  be  marked  by  a  distinction 
of  gender  in  the  pronouns :  but  the  third  person  or  thing 
spoken  of,  being  absent,  and  in  naany  respects  unknown,  it 
is  necessary  that  it  should  be  marked  by  a  distinction  of 
gender;  at  least  when  some  particuhir  person  or  thing  is 
3j)oken  of,  that  ought  to  be  more  distinctly  marked  ;  accord- 
ingly the  pronoun  singular  of  the  third  person  has  the  three 
genders,  he,  she^  it. 

Pronouns  have  three  cases  ;  the  nominative, 
the  possessive,  and  the  objective. 

The  objective  case  of  a  pronoun  has,  in  general,  a  form 
different  from  that  of  the  nominative,  or  the  possessive  case. 


The  pel 

rsonal  pronouns  are  thus  declined  : 

Person, 

Case, 

Singular. 

Plural. 

First. 

JVom. 

I. 

We. 

Boss. 

Mine. 

Ours. 

Obj. 

Me. 

Us. 

Second. 

JVom. 

Thou. 

Ye  or  you 

Poss. 

Thine. 

Yours. 

Ohj. 

Thee. 

You. 

Third. 

JVom. 

He. 

Tliey. 

Mas. 

Poss. 

His. 

Theirs. 

Obj. 

Him. 

Them. 

Third. 

JVom. 

She. 

They. 

Fern. 

Poss. 

Hers. 

Theirs. 

Obj. 

Her. 

Them. 

Third. 

JVom. 

It. 

They. 

JYeukr. 

Poss. 

Its. 

Theirs. ' 

Obj. 

It. 

Them. 

Sect.  2.     Of  the  Relative  Pronouns. 
Relative  Pronouns  are  such  as  relate,  in 
general,  to  some  vrord  or  phrase  ^oing  l>efore, 
which  is  thence  called  the  antecedent :  they  are. 


iO  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

whoy  which^  and  thai ;  as,  **The  man  is  happy, 
who  lives  viiiuously.*'^ 

Whath  a  kind  of  compound  relative,  inclu- 
ding both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative,  and 
is  equivalent  to  tliat  which:  as,  "That  is  ivhatl 
wanted;^'  that  is  to  say,  "/Ae  thim which!  want- 
ed.'^ 

Who  is  applied  to  persons,  which  to  animals, 
and  inanimate  things  :  as,  "He  is  a  friend^  w/io 
is  faithful  in  adversity  ;"  *The  bird  tchich  sung 
so  sweetly  is  flown;'*  "This  is  the  tree  ichich 
produces  no  fruit.'^ 

That,  as  a  relative,  is  often  used  to  prevent 
the  too  frequent  repetition  of  icho  and  ivhich. 
It  is  applied  to  both  persons  and  things  :  as. 
He  that  acts  wisely  deserves  praise  ;''  "Modes- 
ty is  a  quality  that  highly  adorns  a  woman.'* 

Who  is  of  both  numbers,  and  is  thus  declined ; 

*"  Singidar  a?id  Plural. 

Nominatives  Who. 

Possessive^  \s  hose* 

V&jective^  Whom. 

Which^  that,  and  fvhat,  are  likewise  of  both  numbers,  but 
tbey  do  not  vary  their  terminaiion  ;  except  that  n?/i<5f  is 
sometimes  used  asthe  possfssive  caseot  rvhich  ;  as,  "Is  there 
any  other  doctrine  whose  fono\>ers  are  punished  ?'* 

''And  the  fruit 

Of  that  forbidden  tree  whose  mortal  taste 

Brought  death.*'  MiLTOW* 

* ''Pure  the  joy  without  allay, 

Whose  very  rapture  is  tranquility."  young. 

*  The  relative  pronoun,  trlien  used  icterrogatively,  relates  to  a  vrord  or  ohrag!* 
which  is  not  anUcsdcnt  but  snbicqutnt  to  tLe  relative.  See  aote  under  the  Vl.  ruJ» 
of  Syntax. 


ETYMOLOGV.  Qi 

"^Tlie  lights  and  slmdes,  7?;/i05/'  well  accorded  strife 
Gives  all  the  strejigfh  and  colour  of  our  life."  pope. 

"This  is  one  of  the  clearest  characteristics  of  i(s  being  a 
religion  whose  origin  is  divine."  blair. 

By  the  use  of  this  license,  one  word  is  substituted  for  three  z 
as,  ''Philosophy,  whose  end  is  to  instruct  us  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  nature,"  for,  ''Philosophy,  the  end  of  which  is  to  ii- 
struct  us,"  &c. 

JVho,  which  and  what^  have  sometimes  fhe  words  soever 
2iX\i\ever  annexed  to  them  ;  as,  ^^ whosoever  or  7vhoever^  which- 
soever, or  whichever ^  whatsoever^  or  whatever ;"  but  they  are 
seldom  used  in  modern  stj  le. 

The  word  that  is  sometimes  a  relative,  somr times  a  de» 
monstrative  pronoun,  and  sometimes  a  conjunction.  It  is  a 
relative,  when  it  may  be  turned  into  who  or  which  without 
destroying  the  sense  :  as,  "They  that  (who)  reprove  us,  may 
be  our  best  friends;"  "From  every  thing  that  (which)  you 
see,  derive  instruction."  It  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun 
when  it  is  followed  immediately  by  a  subsf  intive,  to  which 
it  is  either  joined,  or  refers,  and  which  it  limits  or  qualifies; 
as,  "T/taf  boy  is  industrious;"  ^^That  belongs  to  me;"  mean- 
ing that  book,  that  desk,  &c.  It  is  a  conjunction,  when  ifc 
joins  sentences  together,  and  cannot  be  turned  into  who  or 
7vhich,  without  destroying  the  sense  :  as,  "Take  care  that  ev-- 
ery  day  be  well  employed."  "1  hope  he  will  believe  that  I 
have  not  acted  improperly." 

Who,  which,  and  what  are  called  Interrogatives,  when  they 
are  used,  in  asking  questions ;  as,  ^'Who  is  he  ?"  ^Whick  is 
the  book  ?"  ''What  art  thou  doing  ?" 

Whether  was  formerly  made  use  of  to  signify  interroga- 
tion :  as,  '""Whether  of  these  shall  I  choose  ?"  but  it  is  now 
seldom  used,  the  interrogative  which  being  substituted  for  if. 
Some  grammarians  think  that  the  use  of  it  should  be  reviv- 
ed; as,  like  either  and  neither  it  points  to  the  dual  number  j 
and  would  contribute  to  render  our  expressions  concise  am! 
definite. 

Some  writers  have  classed  the  interrogatives  as  a  separate 
kind  of  pronouns :  but  they  are  too  nearly  related  to  the 
relative  pronouns,  both  iri  nature  and  form,  to  render  such  a 
division  proper.  They  do  not,  in  fact,  lose  the  character  of 
relatives,  when  they  become  interrogatives.  The  only  dif^ 
F 


62  ENGLLSH  GRAMMAR. 

ference  is,  that  without  an  interrogation,  the  rehitives  have 
refftrcnce  to  a  subject  which  is  antecedent,  definite,  and 
known ;  7vith  an  interrogation,  to  a  subject  which  is  subse- 
quent, indefinite,  and  unknown,  and  which  it  is  expected 
that  tlie  answer  should  express  and  ascertain. 

Sect.  3.  Of  the  Adjective  Pronouns. 

Adjeclive  Pronouns  are  of  a  mixed  nature 
participating  the  properties  both  of  pronouns 
and  adjectives.  The  adjeclive  pronouns  may 
be  subdivided  into  four  sorts,  namely,  ihe  pos- 
sessive^  the  distributive^  the  demonstrative y  and  the 
indefinite. 

1.  The  possessive  are  those  which  relate  to 
possession  or  property.  There  are  seven  of 
them  ;  viz.  my^  thy^  his^  her^  our^  your.,  their. 

Mine  and  thine.,  instead  of  my  and  thy^  were 
foimerly  used  before  a  substantive,  or  adjec- 
tive, beginning  with  a  vowel,  or  silent  h:  as. 
''Blot  out  all  mine  iniquities." 

The  possessives,  his,  mine,  thine,  may  be  accounted  either 
possessive  pronouns,  or  the  possessive  cases  of  their  res- 
pective personal  pronouns. 

When  the  possessive  pronouns  are  prefixed  to  substan- 
tives, or  are  parted  from  them  only  by  an  adjective,  they 
admit  of  no  variation,  whatever  be  the  number  or  case  of 
the  noun  :  as,  my  young  cousin  is  here,  be  knows  w.t/  par- 
ents; /if r  merit  is  great ;  she  lives  with  /ter  relations;  mtr 
books  are  torn,  we  ow  n  our  faults ;  their  situation  is  misera- 
ble, I  admire  their  noble  virtues. 

"When  they  are  separated  from  the  noun  by  a  verb,  or 
when  the  noun  is  understood,  all  of  them  except  his^  vary 
their  terminations  :  as,  This  hat  is  mine,  and  the  other  is 
thine ;  those  trinkets  are  hers  ;  this  house  is  curs,  and  that 
is  yours;  theirs  is  more  commodious  than  curs.    But  these 


ETYMOLOGY.  63 

varialiGFiS  are  in  fact  the  possessive  caioa  of  [he  personal 
pronouns. 

The  two  words  ow?i  and  .Sc/f,  are  used  in  conjunction  with 
pronouns.  Own  is  milled  to  posscssives,  hoth  singular  and 
phirai :  as,  Mi/  own  hand,  our  own  hoase,"  It  is  emphatic- 
a!,  and  implies  a  silent  contrariety  or  opposition  ;  as,  ''  I 
live  in  my  own  house,"  that  is,  i)Ot  ux  a  hired  house.  Se'f'is 
added  to  possessives  :  ix^^  myself^  y  our  selves  ;  and  sometimea 
to  personal  pronouns:  us  ^  himself.  itsclj\ihe>7is€lves.  It  then, 
like  own^  expresses  emphasis  and  opposition  :  as,  "I  did  this 
myself,"  that  is,  ''not  another  ;"  or  it  forms  a  reciprocal  pro- 
noun ;  as,  "We  hurt  ourselves  by  vain  rage." 

Himself y  themselves,  are  now  used  in  the  nominative  case, 
instead  ot"  hisself,  their  selves :  as,  "He  came  himself;"  "He 
himself  shall  do  this ;"  "They  performed  it  themselves.'* 

The  distributive  are  those  wliich  denote  the 
persons  or  things  that  make  up  a  number,  as 
taken  separately  and  singly.  They  are  eachy 
every^  either :  as,  ^^Each  of  his  brothers  is  in  a 
favorable  situation  ;"  ''Every  man  must  ac- 
count for  himself :''  "I  have  not  seen  either  of 
them." 

Each  relates  to  two  or  more  persons  or  tilings,  and  signi- 
fies either  of  the  two,  or  every  one  of  any  number,  taken 
separately. 

Every  relates  (o  several  persons  or  things,  and  signifies 
each  one  of  them  all  taken  separately.  This  pronoun  was 
formerly  used  apart  from  its  noun,  but  it  is  now  constantly 
annexed  to  it,  except  in  legal  proceedings  :  as,  in  the  phrase 
"all  and  every  of  them." 

Either  relates  to  two  persons  or  things  taken  separately, 
and  sisjnities  the  one  or  tlie  other.  To  say,  "either  of  the 
three,''  is  therefore  im|>roper. 

Neither  imports  "■not/Athcr  T  that  is,  not  one  nor  the  oth- 
er; as,  '•'•Neither  of  xny  friends  was  there." 

3.  The  demonstrative  are  those  which  precise- 
ly point  out  the  subjtict;^^  to  which  they  relate  : 


6i  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

this  and  ihat^  these  and  those^  are  of  fhis  class  :— 
as,  "TTi/^  istrue  charity;  /^a/isonly  its  image.'' 
This  refers  to  the  nearest  person  or  thing, 
and  that  to  the  most  distant :  as,  ^'This  man  is 
more  intelligent  than  /Aa//'  This  indicates  the 
latter  or  last  mentioned  ;  thaty  the  former  or 
lirst  mentioned  :  as,  "Both  wealth  and  poverty 

le  temptations;  that,  tends  to  excite  pride, 

Vt'o,  discontent.'' 

Prj  hapfj  (he  words  former  and  latter  may  be  properly  rank- 
ed ojnongst  the  demoiislrativc  pronouns,  especially  in  many 
of  their  appMcarions.  The  following  sentence  may  serve 
asauexamj)Io  :  "It  was  happy  for  the  state,  tliat  Fabius  con- 
tinued in  the  command  with  Miiiucius  :  ihe  forme fs  phlegm 
wae  a  check  upoa  tlie  latter  s  vivacity.*' 

4.  The  indefinite  are  those  which  express  their 
subjects  in  an  indefinite  or  general  manner. 
The  fallowing  are  of  this  kind  :  somr;^  other^ 
any^^  one,  all^  such.  c^c. 

Of  these  pronouns,  only  tlie  wonli  one  and  clhcr  arc  vari- 
ed. One  lias  a  possessive  case,  which  it  formo  in  the  same 
manner  as  substantives  :  as, one,  ones.  This  v.ord  has  a  gen- 
eral signification,  meaning  people  at  large;  end  sometimes 
also  a  peculiar  reference  to  the  person  wtio  is  speaking :  as, 
*'Onc  ought  to  pity  the  distresses  of  mankind.''  ^*Cne  is  apt 
to  love  one'^s  self."  This  word  is  often  used,  by  2;ood  wri- 
ters, in  the  [dural  number  :  as,  ''The  great  ones  of  the  v.orld;" 
**The  boy  wounded  the  old  bird,  and  stole  tlieycrice 
*  My  wife  and  the  little  ones  are  in  good  health. ' 

Other  is  declined  in  the  following  manner  : 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn,  Other  Others, 

Pos?.  Other's  Others'. 

Obj.  Othe^^  Ofh^rs 


ETYiVIOLOGY.  65 

The  plural  others  is  only  used  when  ai^ait  from  the  noun 
to  which  it  refer?,  whether  expressed  or  understood  :  as, 
"When  you  have  pertiscd  these  papers,  I  will  send  you  the 
others.''^  ''He  pleases  some,  hut  he  disgusts  others,''  When 
this  pronoun  is  joined  to  nouns,  either  singular  or  plural,  it 
has  no  variation  ;  as,  "the  other  man,"  "the  other  men." 

The  following  phrases  may  serve  to  exemplify  (he  indefi- 
nite pronouns.  '•''Some  of  j'ou  are  wise  and  good  f  "A  few 
of  them  were  idle,  the  others  industrious;"  "Neither is  there 
any  that  is  unexceptionahle  ;"  ^One  ought  to  know  one's  own 
mind ;"  "They  were  all  present  f  Such  is  the  state  of  man, 
that  he  is  never  at  rest ;'  ^'Soinr  a; e  iK^^pj^y,  while  others  are 
miserable." 

The  word  another  is  composeil  oi  the  intlefinite  article 
prefixed  to  the  word  other. 

None  is  used  in  both  numhers  :  as,  ^-None  is  so  deaf  as  he 
that  will  not  hear;"  ''Noiie  of  (hose  are  equal  to  these."  It 
seems  originally  to  have  signified,  according  to  its  deriva- 
tion, not  onc^  and  therefore  to  have  had  no  plural ;  but  there 
is  good  authority  for  the  use  of  it  in  the  plural  number :  as^ 
^^NGncih'dt  go  unto  her  return  again."  Prov.  ii.  19.  "Terms 
of  ()eace  were  none  vouchsaf'd."  Milton.  ^'JVone  of  them 
are  varied  to  express  the  gender."  ^^None  of  them  have  dif- 
ferent endings  for  the  numhers."  Lowth's  Introductions 
^^None  of  their  productions  are  extant."     Blair. 

We  have  endeavored  to  distinguish  and  explain  the  na- 
ture of  the  adjective  pronouns ;  but  it  is  ditficult  to  divide 
them  in  an  exact  and  unexceptionable  manner.  Some  ofc' 
them,  in  particular  applications,  might  have  been  differently 
classed  ;  but  it  is  presumed  that,  in  general,  the  distributioa 
is  tolerably  correct.  All  the  pronouns,  except  the  personal 
and  relative,  may,  indeed,  in  a  general  view  of  them,  be  con- 
sidered as  (kjinitive  pronouns,  because  they  define  or  ascer- 
tain the  extent  of  the  common  name  or  general  term,  to 
which  they  refer  or  are  joined  ;  but  as  each  class  of  them 
does  this,  more  or  less  exactly,  or  in  a  manner  peculiar  toit» 
self,  a  division  adapted  to  this  circumstance  appears  to  be 
suitable  to  the  nature  of  things,  and  the  understanding  o£ 
learners. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  respectable  grammarians,  tha^ 
the  words  this,that^  any,  some,  such,  his^  their ^  our^  &c.  are 
F  2 


66  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

pronouus,  when  they  are  used  separately  from  the  nouns  (o 
which  they  relate  ;  but  that,  when  they  are  joined  to  those 
nouns,  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to  this  spe- 
cies of  words ;  because,  in  this  association,  they  rather  a«- 
certain  a  substantive,  than  supply  the  place  of  one.  They 
assert,  that,  in  the  phrases,  "give  me  //irtf,"  ''this  is  John's," 
and  "such  were  some  of  you,"  the  words  in  italics  are  pro- 
nouns :  but  that,  in  the  following  phrases  thej^  are  not  pro- 
nouns ;  ^'this  book  is  instructive,"  '^somc  boys  are  ingenious," 
"mi/  health  is  declining,"  ''our  hearts  are  deceitful,"  &c. 
Other  grammarians  think,  that  none  of  these  forms  of  speech 
can  properly  be  called  pronouns;  as  the  genuine  pronoun 
stands  by  itself,  without  the  aid  of  a  noun  expressed  or  un- 
derstood. They  are  of  opinion,  that  in  the  expressions, 
•'Give  me  that;"  "This  is  John's,"  &c.  the  noun  is  always 
understood,  and  must  be  supplied  in  the  mind  of  the  reader: 
as,  "Give  me  that  hooki''  ''this  book  is  John's ;"  "and  such 
persons  were  some  persons  amongst  you." 

Some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  the  pronouns  should  be 
classed  into  substantive  and  a^fjcclive  (>ronouns.  Under  the 
former,  they  include  the  personal  and  the  relative  ;  under  the 
latter,  all  the  others.  But  this  division,  though  a  neat  one, 
does  not  appear  to  be  accurate.  All  the  relative  pronouus 
will  not  range  uniler  the  substantive  head. — We  have  dis- 
tributed these  parts  of  sj)eech,  in  the  mode  which  we  think 
most  correct  and  intelligible  .  but,  for  the  information  of  stu- 
dents, and  to  direct  their  inquiries  on  the  subject,  we  stat« 
the  different  opinions  of  several  judicious  writers  on  Gram- 
mar. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

OF   TERB8. 

Sect.  1.     Of  the  nature  of  Verbs  in  general, 

A  Verb  is  a  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to  do, 
or  to  SUFFER;  as,  **I  am,  I  rule,  I  am  ruled." 

Verbs  are  of  three  kinds;  active,  passive, 
and  NEUTER.     They  are  also  divided  into  regu- 

liAR,  IRREGULAR,  and  DEFECTIVE* 


ETYMOLOGY.  6t 

A  Verb  active  expresses  an  action,  and  ne- 
cessaril}'  implies  an  ajrent,  and  an  object  acted 
upon  :  as,  to  love  ;  "I  love  Penelope." 

A  Verb  passive,  expresses  a  passion  or  a  suf- 
fering, or  the  receiving  of  an  action ;  and  ne- 
cessarily implies  an  object  acted  upon,  and  an 
agent  by  which  it  is  acted  upon ;  as,  to  be 
loved ;  "Penelope  is  loved  by  me." 

A  Verb  neuter  expresses  neither  action  nor 
passion,  but  being,  or  a  state  of  being ;  as,  "I 
am,  r  sleep,  I  sit.^ 

The  verb  active  is  also  called  transitive^  because  the  aciioa 
passes  over  to  the  object,  or  has  aa  etfect  upon  some  other 
thing;  as,  "The  tutor  instructs  his  pupils ;"  "I  esteem  the 
man." 

Verbs  neuter  may  properly  be  denominated  intransitives^ 
because  the  effect  is  confined  within  the  subject,  and  does 
not  pass  over  to  any  object :  as,  "I  sit,  he  lives,  they  sleep." 

Some  of  the  verbs  that  are  usually  ranked  among  neuters, 
make  a  near  approach  to  the  nature  of  a  verb  active  ;  but 
they  may  be  distinguished  from  it  by  their  being  intransi- 
tive :  as,  to  run,  to  walk,  to  fly,  &c.  The  rest  are  more  ob- 
viously neuter,  and  more  clearly  expressive  of  a  middle  state 
between  action  and  passion  :  as,  to  stand,  to  lie,  to  sleep,  &c. 

In  English,  many  verbs  are  used  both  in  an  active,  and  a 
neuter  signitication,  the  construction  only  determining  of 
which  kind  they  are  :  as,  to  flatten,  signifying  to  make  even 

*  Verbs  have  been  distinguished  by  some  writers  into  the  following  kinds, 

Ist.  Active-transitive,  or  those  Avhich  denote  an  action  that  passes  from  the  agent 
to  some  object  :  as  Caesar  conquered  Pompey. 

2d.  Active-i^Uransitive,  or  those  which  express  that  kind  of  action,  which  has  no  ef- 
fect upon  any  thin^  beyond  the  agent  himself  :  as  Caesar  walked. 

3d.  Pajjtwe,  or  those  which  express,  not  action  but  passion,  whether  pleasing,  or 
painful  :  as  Portia  was  loved  :  Pompey  was  conquered. 

4th.  Neuter,  or  those  which  express  an  attribute  that  consists  neither  in  action,  nor 
passion :  as,  Caesar  stood. 

This  appears  to  be  an  orderly  arrangement  But  if  the  class  of  active-intransitive 
verbs  were  admitted,  it  would  rather  perplex  than  assist  the  learner :  for  the  diifer- 
ence  between  verbs  active  and  neuter,  as  transitive  and  intransitive,  is  easy  and  obvi=. 
vious  :— but  the  difference  between  verbs  absolutely  neuter  and  intransitively  active^ 
h  fiQt  always  clear*    It  by  indeed,  often  Tery  UifiicuH  to  be  asccrtau]ed> 


68  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

or  level,  is  a  verb  active ;  but  when  it  signifies  to  grow  dull 
or  ins'pitl,  it  is  a  verb  neuter. 

A  neuter  verb,  by  the  addition  of  a  preposition,  may  be- 
come a  compound  active  verb.  To  smile  is  a  neuter  verb  : 
it  cannot,  therefore,  be  followed  by  an  objective  case,  nor  be 
be  construed  as  a  passive  verb.  We  cannot  say,  she  smiled 
him,  01  he  was  smiled.  But  to  smile  on  being  a  compound 
active  verb,  we  properly  say,  she  sj7iiled  on  him  ;  he  was 
smiled  on  by  fortune  in  every  undertaking. 

Auxiliaries  or  helping;  Verbs,  are  those  by 
the  help  of  which  the  English  verbs  are  princi- 
pally conjugated.  They  are,  rfo,  be^  have^shall^ 
willy  may^  can^  with  their  variations  ;  and  let  and 
mtist  which  have  no  variation.^ 

In  our  definition  of  the  verb,  as  a  part  of  speech  which 
signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  to  suffer,  &c.  we  have  included  eve- 
ry thing,  either  expressly  or  by  necessary  consequence, 
that  is  essential  to  its  nature,  and  nothing  tiiat  is  not  essen- 
tial to  it.  Tiiis  definition  is  warranted  by  the  authority  of 
Dr.  Lowth,  and  of  many  other  respectable  writers  on  gram- 
mir.  There  are,  however,  some  gramoaariaiiS,  who  consid- 
er assertion  as  the  essence  of  tlie  verb.  But  as  the  partici- 
ple and  the  infinitive,  if  included  in  it,  would  prove  in- 
Bupcrble  objections  to  their  scheme,  they  have,  without 
hesitation,  denied  the  former  a  place  in  the  verb,  and  declare 
cd  the  latter  to  be  merely  an  abstract  noun.  This  appears 
to  be  going  rather  too  far  in  support  of  an  hypothesis.  It 
seems  to  be  incumbent  on  these  grammarians,  to  reject  also 
the  imperative  mood.  What  part  of  speech  would  they 
imke  the  ver  s  in  the  following  sentence?  "Depart  instant- 
ly :  improve  your  time  :  forgive  us  our  sins."  Will  it  be 
said,  that  the  verbs  in  these  phrases  are  assertions  ? 

In  reply  to  these  questions,  it  has  been  said  that  "De- 
part instantly"  is  an  expression  equivalent  to  "I  desire  you 
to  depart  instantly ;  and  that  as  the  latter  phrase  implicB 
affirmation  or  assertion,  so  does  the  former.     But,  supposing 

<►  Let  as  a  principal  verb,  has  UiUst  and  Uluth ;  bi^  as  a  helping  v«rb  it  iwlaiits  cf 
BO  varistioa. 


ETY.MOLOGY.  69 

the  phrases  to  be  exactly  alike  in  ^ense,  the  reasoning  is 
not  conclusive."  1st.  In  the  latter  phrase,  the  only  part  im- 
plying afifirmation)  is,  "I  desire."  The  ^vo^ds  *Ho  depart,*' 
are  in  the  infinitive  mood,  and  contain  no  assertion  :  they 
affirm  nothing.  2d.  The  position  is  not  tenable,  that  "  E- 
quivalence  in  sense  imj}lies  similarity  in  grammatical  na- 
ture." It  proves  too  much,  and  therefore  nothing.  This 
mode  of  reasoning  would  confound  the  acknowledged  gra;^ 
matical  distinction  of  words.  A  pronoun,  on  this  princi|)le, 
may  be  proved  to  be  a  noun;  a  noun,  a  verb;  an  adverb,  a 
noun  and  preposition  ;  the  superlative  degree,  the  compara* 
live;  the  imperative  the  indicative;  the  future  tense,  the 
present ;  and  so  on  :  because  they  may  respectively  be  re- 
solved into  similar  meanings.  Thus  in  the  sentence,  "I  de- 
sire you  to  depart,"  the  words  to  depart,  may  be  called  a 
noun,  because  they  are  equivalent  in  sense  to  the  noun  de- 
parture,  in  the  following  sentence,  "I  desire  your  departure." 
The  words  ''Depart  instanHy,"  may  be  proved  to  be,  not 
the  imperative  mood  with  an  adverb,  but  the  indicative 
and  infinitive,  with  a  noun  and  preposition;  for  they  are 
equivalent  to  "I  desire  you  to  depart  in  an  instant."  The 
superlative  degree  in  this  sentence,  "Of  all  acquirements 
virtue  is  the  most  valuable,"  may  pass  for  the  comparative^ 
because  it  conveys  the  same  sentiment,  as  virtue  is  more 
valuable  than  every  other  acquirement." 

We  shall  not  pursue  this  subject  any  further,  as  the  read- 
er must  be  satisfied  that  only  the  word  desire^  in  the  equiva- 
lent sentence,  implies  affirmation  ;  and  that  one  phrase  may, 
in  sense,  be  equivalent  to  another,  though  its  grammatical 
nature  is  essentially  different. 

To  verbs  beJong  number,  person,  mood  and 

TENSE. 

Sect.  2.     Of  Number  and  Person. 

Verbs  have  two  numbers,  the  Singular  and 
the  plural :  as,  "I  run,  we  run,"  &c. 

la  each  number  there  are  three  persons^  as 


VO  ENGLISH  GUAMMAU. 

Singular.  PluraJ. 

First  Person.         I  love.  We  love. 

Second  Person.      Thou  lovest.  Ye  or  you  love. 

Third  Person.       He  loves.  Theylove, 

Tlius  the  verb,  in  some  parts  of  it,  varies  its  endings 
to  txpress,  or  agree  with,  different  persons  of  the  same 
number:  as,  *'l  love^  thou  lovest;  he  lovdh,  or  loves ;' and 
also  to  express  (Hfferent  numbers  of  the  same  person :  as, 
''thou  lovest,  ye  love;  he  lovetk,  they  /cw."  In  the  |)Iijral 
number  of  the  verb,  there  is  no  variation  of  ending  to  ex- 
press the  (lifterent  persons  ;  and  the  verb,  in  three  persons 
plural,  is  the  same  as  it  is  in  the  tirst  person  singular.  Yet 
this  scanty  provision  of  terminations  is  sufficient  for  all  the 
purposes  of  discourse,  and  no  ambiguity  arises  from  it  :  the 
verb  being  always  attended,  either  with  the  noun  expressing 
the  subject  acting  or  acted  upon,  or  with  the  pronoun  repre- 
senting it.  For  this  reason,  the  plural  termination  in  rn, 
thnj  lovm,  (hey  rveren,  formerly  in  use,  was  laid  aside  as  un- 
necessary, and  has  long  been  obsolete. 

Sect.  3.     Of  Moods  and  Far lieiples. 

Mood  or  Mode  is  a  particular  form  of  the 
Terb  showing  the  manner  in  which  the  being, 
action  or  passion  is  represented. 

The  nature  of  a  mood  m.iy  be  more  intelligibly  explained 
to  the  scholar,  by  observing,  that  it  consists  in  the  change 
which  the  verb  rjidergoes,  to  signify  various  intentions  of 
the  mind,  and  various  modifications  and  circumstances  of 
action:  which  explanation,  if  compared  with  the  tbilowing 
account  and  uses  of  the  difierent  moods,  will  be  found  to. 
agree  with  and  illustrate  them. 

There  are  five  moods  of  verbs,  the  indica- 
tive, the  iMPLRATiVE,  the  potential,  the  sub- 
junctive, and  the  infinitive. 

The  Indicative  Mood  simply  indicates  or  de- 
clares a  thing :  as,  "He  loves,  he  is  loved :''  or 


jmijMOLOGY,  71 

it  askB  a  question  :  as,  "Does  he  love  ?"  "Is  he 
loved  r 

The  Imperative  Mood  is  used  for  command- 
ing, exhorting,  entreating,  or  permitting:  as, 
"Depart  thou ;  mind  ye;  let  us  stay ;  go  in 
peace." 

Though  this  mood  derives  ils  name  from  its  intimation  of 
command,  it  is  used  on  accasions  of  a  very  opposite  nature, 
even  in  the  humblest  supplications  of  an  inferior  being  to 
one  who  is  infinitely  his  superior:  as,  *'Give  us  this  day  our 
daily  bread ;  and  forgive  us  our  trespasses." 

The  Potential  Mood  implies  possibility  or 
liberty,  power,  will,  or  obligation  :  as,  "It  may 
rain ;  he  may  go  or  stay  ;  1  can  ride  ;  he  would 
walk  ;  they  should  learn." 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  represents  a  thing  un- 
der a  condition,  motive,  wish,  supposition,  &c.; 
and  is  preceded  by  a  conjunction,  expressed 
or  understood,  and  attended  by  another  verb: 
as,  "I  will  respect  him,  though  he  chide  me ;'' 
"Were  he  good,  he  would  be  happy  ;''  that  is, 
"e/he  were  good/' 

The  Infinitive  Mood  expresses  a  thing  in  a 
general  and  unlimited  manner,  without  any 
distinction  of  number  or  person  :  as,  "io  act, 
to  speak,  to  be  feared." 

The  Participle  is  a  certain  form  of  the  verb, 
and  derives  its  name  from  its  participating, 
not  only  of  the  properties  of  a  verb,  but  also 
of  those  of  an  adjective  ;  as,  "I  am  desirous  of 
knowing  him ;"  ^^admired  and  applauded^  he  be- 
came vain."  "Having Jinished  his  word  he  sub- 
mitted it,"  &€• 


ENGLISH  GBiAIMAll. 

rhere  are  three  parliciples,  the  P]e«?ent  or 
Aclive,  the  Perfect  or  Passive,  and  the  Com- 
pound Perfect :  as,  "loving,  h)ved,  having  Iot- 
cd.'' 

Agreeably  to  the  general  practice  of  grammarians,  vre 
'^hve  represented  the  present  participle,  as  active  ;  and  the 
past  as  passive  :  but  they  are  not  uniformly  so:  the  pre- 
sent is  sometimes  [)assive;  and  the  past  is  frequently 
active.  Thus,  *'The  youth  7vas  cons2tming  by  a  slow  mal- 
aily;"  '^Tiie  Indian  was  htrning  hy  the  cruelt}^  of  his  ene- 
mies ;''  appear  to  be  instances  of  the  present  participle 
being  used  passively.  "He  has  insirucled  me;"  "1  have 
gratefully  repaid  his  kindnesses;'*  are  examples  of  the  past 
participle  beino:  applied  in  an  active  sense.  We  may  also 
ol.serve,  that  the  present  participle  is  sometimes  associated 
with  the  past  and  future  tenses  of  the  verb;  and  the  past 
j)a}t  ciple  connected  with  the  present  and  future  tenses. — 
The  most  unexceptionable  distinction  which  grammarians 
make  between  the  participles,  is,  that  the  one  points  to  the 
continuation  of  the  action,  passion,  or  state,  denoted  by  the 
verb  ;  and  the  other  to  the  completion  of  it.  Thus,  the  pre- 
sent participle  signifies  imperfect  action,  or  action  begun 
and  not  ended  :  as,  "1  am  ivriting  a  letter."  The  past  par- 
ticiple signifies  action  perfected,  or  finished :  as,  *'l  have 
written  a  letter."     "The  letter  is  ivritte?!:'"^ 

The  participle  is  distinguished  from  the  adjective,  by  the 
former's  expressing  the  idea  of  time,  and  the  latler's  denot- 
ing only  a  quality.  The  phrases,  '■Moving  to  give  as  well 
as  to  receive,"  ''moving  in  haste,"  ''heated  with  liquor," 
coatdiu  oarticiples  giving  the  idea  of  time  ;  but  the  epithets 
contained  in  the  expressions,  "a  loving  child,"  a  moving 
spectacle,"  a  heated  imagination y''  mark  simply  the  qualities 
referred  to,  without  any  regard  to  time  ;  and  may  properly  be 
be  called  participial  adjectives. 

Participles  not  only  convey  the  notion  of  time  ;  but  they 
also  signify  action,  and  govern  the  cases  of  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns, in  the  same  manner  as  verbs  do;  and  therefore 
should    be  comprehended   in   the  general  name  of  verbs. 

*When  this  participle  is  joined  to  the  verb  to  ha%>e,  it  is  called  perfect :  ■when  it  is 
joiaed  totbfi  verb  to  be,  or  understood  with  it,  it  is  deDoroinated  jjaJ5ivc. 


ETYMOLOGY.  73 

That  thry  are  mere  modes  of  the  verb,  is  manifesf,  if  our 
•lefirutionof  a  verb  be  aelmitted  :  for  they  signify  bein^, 
doing  or  suffering,  w'lih  the  designation  of  time  superadd 
dt  d.  But  if  (be  essence  of  the  verb  be  made  to  consist  in 
affirmation  or  assertion,  not  only  the  participle  Avill  be  ex- 
cluded from  its  place  in  the  verb,  but  the  infinitive  itself  al- 
so ;  whicli  certain  ancient  grammarians  of  great  authority 
held  to  be  alone  the  genuine  verbs,  simple  and  uuconaected 
%vi{h  persons  and  circumstances. 

The  following  phrases,  even  when  considered  in  tbem- 
solves,  show  that  participles  include  the  idea  of  time; 
'^'i'he  letter  being  written,  or  having  been  written  P 
'Hyhailes  bei?ig  wriling,  having  written,  or  having  been 
n-riling.^'  But  when  arranged  in  an  entire  sentence,  which 
fhey  must  be  to  make  a  complete  sense,  they  show  it  still 
more  evidently  :  as,  "Charles  having  ivrittenihe  letter,  seal- 
ed and  despatched  it." — The  participle  does  indeed  associate 
.vith  the  different  tenses  of  the  verb  :  as,  "I  am  writing,"  "I 
was  writing,"  "I  shall  be  writing  :"  but  this  forms  no  just  ob- 
jection to  ils  denoting  time,  If  the  time  of  it  is  often  rela- 
tive lime,  this  circumstance,  far  from  disproving,  supports 
oar  position.^     See  observations  under  Rule  13  of  Syntax, 

Participles  sometimes  perform  the  oflice  of  substantiveg^ 
ansl  are  used  as  such,  as  in  the  following  instances:  "The 
Icginning  ;'^  ""A  good  imdcrslanding ;''  **excellent  writing  i^ 
*^The  chancellor's  being  attached  to  the  king  secured  his 
crown  :"  "The  general's  having  failed  in  this  enterprise  oc- 
casioned his  disgrace  ;"  "John's  havrng  been  writing  a  long 
time  had  wearied  him." 

That  the  words  in  italics  of  the  three  latter  examples, 
perform  the  ofnce  of  substantives,  and  may  be  considered 
as  such  will  be  evident,  if  we  reflect,  that  the  first  of  them 
has  exactly  the  same  meaning  and  construction  as,  "The 
chancellor's  attachment  to  the  king  secured  his  crown;'* 
and  that  the  other  examples  will  bear  a  similar  construc- 
tion. The  words  being  attached,  govern  the  word  chancel- 
lor's  in  the  possessive  case,  in  the  one  instance,  as  clearly  as 
attachment  governs  it  in  that  case,  in  the  other  :  and  it  is 

■^-Froin  the  very  nature  of  time,  an  action  may  be  presmt  non>,  it  may  have  been 
•prtsaii formerly^  or  it  may  be  present  At  soir.e  fufwrf  period — yet,  whoever  supposed 
that  the  present  of  the  indicative  deaotes  no  time.  Enci/clopcdia  Britannica. 

G 


■'■■%  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

only  «ub»(aatives,  or  words  and  phrases  winch  operate  a« 
substantives,  that  govern  the  genitive  or  possessive  case. 

The  following  sentence  is  not  f)recisely  the  same  as  the 
jibove,  either  in  sense  or  construction,  though,  except  the 
genitive  case,  the  words  are  the  same;  "The  chancellor 
being  attached  to  the  king,  secured  his  crown."  In  tlie 
tormer,  the  words,  being  altachcd,  form  the  nominative 
case  to  the  verb,  and  are  stated  as  the  cause  of  the  etfect ; 
in  the  latter,  they  are  not  the  nominative  case,  and  make 
only  a  circumstance  to  chancellor,  wliich  is  the  proper 
nominative.  It  may  not  be  improper  to  add  another  form 
of  this  sentence,  by  which  the  learner  may  better  under- 
stand the  peculiar  nature  and  form  of  each  of  these  modes 
of  expression  :  "The  chancellor  being  attached  to  the  king, 
his  crown  was  secured,'^  This  constitutes  what  is  properly 
called,  the  Nominative  Case  Absolute. 

Sect.  4.  Remarks  on  the  Potential  Mode, 

That  the  Potential  Mood  should  be  erparated  from  the 
s^uhjunctive,  is  evident,  from  the  intricacy  and  confusion 
which  are  produced  by  their  being  blended  togt^ther,  and 
from  the  distinct  nitture  of  the  t\NO  moods  :  the  former  of 
which  may  be  expressed  without  any  condition,  supposition, 
&c.  ae  will  appear  from  the  following  instances :  "They 
might  have  done  better;"  *'VVe  may  always  act  uprightly  ;'' 
'  [le  was  generous,  and  would  not  take  revenge:'*  '^We 
^'ioidd  resist  the  allurements  of  vice;"  "I  could  formerly 
indulge  myself  in  things,  of  which  1  cannot  now  think  but 
wifh  pain." 

Some  grammarians  have  supposed  that  the  Potential 
Mood,  as  distinguished  above,  from  the  subjunctive,  coin* 
cides  with  tbe  indicative.  lUi\  as  the  latter  "simply  indi- 
cates or  declares  a  thing,"  it  is  manifest  that  the  former, 
which  modifies  the  declaration,  and  introduces  an  idea  ma- 
terially distinct  from  it,  must  be  considerably  diflferent.  *'I 
can  walk,'^^  "I  rlould  walk,"  appear  to  be  so  essentially 
Jistinct  from  the  simplicity  of,  "I  walk,"  "I  walked,"  as 
to  warrant  a  correspondent  disliuction  of  moods.  The  Im- 
{  erativ^e  and  Infitiitive  Moods,  which  are  allowed  to  retain 
TbeitTaok,  do  not  appear  to  contain  such  Strong  marks  ofilia^ 


ETYIVIOLOGY.  7^^ 

crimination  from  the  Indicative,  as  are  found  in  tlie  Potent* 
tial  Mood. 

There  are  other  writers  on  this  subject,  \vho  excUide  the: 
Potential  Mood  from  their  division,  because  it  is  formed, 
not  by  varying  the  principal  verb,  but  by  means  of  the  aux- 
iliary verbs  may,  can,  might,  could,  would,  &c. ;  but  if  we 
recollect,  that  modes  are  used  "to  signify  various  inten- 
tions of  the  mind,  and  various  modiiications  and  circum- 
Mtances  of  action  "  we  shall  perceive  that  those  auxiliars, 
uir  from  interfering  with  this  design,  do,  iti  the  clearest 
manner,  support  and  exemplify  it.  On  the  reason  ane2;e(l 
by  these  writers,  the  greater  part  of  the  Indicative  Mood 
must  also  be  excluded,  as  but  a  small  part  of  it  is  conjugat- 
ed without  auxiliars.  The  Subjunctive  toe  will  fare  no 
better;  since  it  so  clearly  resembles  the  indicative,  and  isr 
formed  by  means  of  conjunctions,  expressed  or  understood, 
which  do  not  more  effectually  show  the  varied  intentions  of: 
the  mind,  than  the  auxiliaries  do  which  are  used  to  form  the 
Potential  Mood. 

Some  writers  have  given  our  moods  a  much  greater  ex- 
tent than  we  have  assigned  to  them.  They  assert  that  the 
English  language  may  be  said,  without  any  great  improprie- 
ty, to  have  as  many  moods  as  it  has  auxiliary  verbs ;  and 
they  alledge  in  support  of  their  opinion,  that  the  compound 
expressions  which  they  help  to  form,  point  out  those  vari- 
ous dispositions  and  actions,  which,  in  other  languages,  are 
expressed  by  moods.  This  would  be  to  multiply  the  moods 
without  advantage.  It  is  however  certain,  that  the  conju- 
gation or  variation  of  verbs,  in  the  English  language,  is  ef- 
fected, almost  entirely,  by  the  means  of  auxiliaries.  We 
must,  therefore,  accommodate  ourselves  to  this  circum- 
stance ;  and  do  that  by  their  assistance,  which  has  been 
done  in  the  learned  languages,  (a  few  instances  to  the  con* 
trary  excepted,)  in  another  manner,,  namely,  by  varying  the 
form  of  the  verb  itselH  At  the  same  time  it  is  necessary  to 
set  proper  bounds  to  this  business,  so  as  not  fo  occasion  ob- 
scurity and  perplexity,  when  we  mean  to  be  simple  and  per- 
spicuous. Instead,  therefore,  of  making  a  separate  mood 
for  every  auxiliary  verb,  and  introducing  moods  Interroga- 
tive, Optative,  Prmnmissive,  Hortative,  Prccative,  Szc.  we 
fiave  exhibited  such  only  as  are  obviously  distinct;  and 
whichj  whilst  they  are  calculated  to  unfold  and  display  the 


7G  EXGLISIl  GRAMMAR. 

subject  intelligibly  to  the  learner,  seem  to  be  sufiicient,  and 
iiot  more  Ibiin  sutilcient  to  answer  all  the  purposes  for  which 
moods  were  introduced. 

From  Grammarians  who  form  tlieir  ideas,  and  make  their 
decisions,  respecting  this  part  of  English  Giamniar,  <  n  (lie 
principles  and  coiisiruclion  of  languages,  which,  in  ttj^se 
j)oinls  do  not  suit  tlie  peculiar  nature  of  our  own,  hut  ditfer 
considerably  from  it,  we  may  very  naturally  expect  gram- 
matical schemes  that  are  neither  perspicuous  nor  consistent, 
am!  which  will  lend  more  to  perplex  than  ittfomi  the  Icaruer. 

Sect.  5.     Cfihe  Tenses. 

Tense,  being  ihe  distinction  of  time,  miji;ht 
^eeni  to  admit  only  of  the  present,  past,  and  fu- 
ture ;  but  lo  mark  it  more  accurately,  it  is  made 
to  consist  of  six  variations,  viz*  tFie  present, 
the  IMPERFECT,  the  perfect,  the  pluperfect, 
and  the  first  and  second  future  tenses. 

The  Present  Tense  represents  an  action  or 
t'vent  as  passing  attheliuie  in  which  it  is  nien- 
iioned  :  s^.  **I  rule  ;  I  an]  ruled.;  I  think;  I 
fear. 

The  present  tense  likewise  espressos  a  character,  quality, 
C^c»  at  present  existing:  as,  **He  js  an  ahle  m:m  ;"  "She 
is  ari  amiable  woman."  It  is  also  used  in  speaking  of  ac- 
tions continued,  wilh  occasional  intenr.issions  to  the  present 
time  :  as,  '"He  freo'.iently  rides;"  "He  walks  out  tveiy 
morning;;''  "He  goes  into  the  country  v\'cry  sfmimer.'' — Wo 
aometiraes  applj'  Mjis  lensq  even  to  j)er3ons  long  since  (Iq-mI  : 
;is,  ^'Seneca  reasons  and  moralizes  well  :*'  "Job  Sj)CHk?  Irtl- 
ingly  of  liis  atHiclions." 

The  present  tense,  preceded  by  the  words,  n?/<a?,  Icfore, 
f*ft(r,  as  soon  as^  i*tc.  is  sometimes  usrd  to  jioint  out  thy 
relative  time  of  a  future  action;  i.s,  '"Jfhcn  he  anivcs^he 
^vili  hear  the  news;*'  "lie  wiii  liear  the  news  b{ fore  he 
?trrivf}s,  or  as  soon  as  he  arrives,  or,  at  farthest,  soon  aficr  he 
"^rrivp?  •*'    *'Tlie  more  &!ie  imarovr -^   <ne  \\\.>r('  auiiabjr  s)«e 


ETYMOLOGY.  77 

In  animntcil  historial  narrations,  this  tense  is  sometimes 
fabsiifuted  for  the  imperfect  tense;  as,  ''lie enters  the  terri- 
tory of  the  peaceable  inhabitants;  he  fights  and  conquers^ 
takes  a  a  immense  booty,  which  he  divides  amongst  his  sol- 
dier?, and  returns  home  to  enjoy  an  empty  triumph,," 

The  Imperfect  Tense  represents  the  action  or 
event  either  as  past  and  finished,  or  as  remain 
in<r  unfinished  at  a  certain  time  past,  as,  "I  lov- 
ed her  for  her  modesty  and  virtue  ;"   "They 
were  travelling  post  when  we  met  them." 

The  Perfect  Tense  not  only  refers  to  what 
is  past,  but  always  conveys  an  allusion  to  the 
present  time:  as,  "I  have  finished  my  letter;'^ 
''I  have  seen  the  person  that  was  recommend- 
ed  me." 

In  the  former  example,  it  is  signified  that  the  finishing 
of  thtt  letter,  thoug^h  past,  was  at  a  period  in^mediately,  or 
very  nearly,  preceding  the  present  time.  In  the  latte?  in- 
siance,  i>  is  uncertain  whether  the  person  mentioned  wa& 
seen  !>y  \hc  speaker  a  long  or  short  time  before.  The  mean-' 
i'lZ  is,  'I  h^ve  seen  him  sometime  in  (he  course  of  a  period 
wiiic'i  includes,  or  coaics  to,  the  present  time,"  Wiien  the 
pirllcuiar  time  of  any  occurrance  is  specified,  as  prior  to  the 
present  time,  this  tense  is  not  used  :  for  it  would  be  impro- 
per to  9iy,  *•!  haj-e  seen  him  yesterday  ;"  or,  **I  have  finished 
my  work  last  week."  In  these  cases  \i\e  imperfect  isneces- 
siry  :  as,  ''I  sa-v  him  yesterday  ;"  ''I  finished  my  work  las^ 
week."  But  when  we  speak  indefinitely  of  any  thing  past, 
as  happening  or  not  hap[)ening  in  the  day,  year,  or  age, 
in  which  we  mention,  it^the  perfect  must  be  employed  :  as, 
''I  have  been  ihere  this  morning;"  ''I  have  travelled  mu<i]\ 
this  year;"  "We  have  e-^cflf/je J  many  dangers  through  life." 
In  referring,  however,  to  such  a  division  of  the  day  as  is 
past  hefore  the  time  of  our  speaking,  we  use  the  imperfect  : 
as,  "They  came  home  this  morning :"  "He  mas  with  them 
this  afternoon." 

The  perfect  tense,  aad  the  imperfect  tense^both  denote  a 
G  2 


73  ENGLISH  GRAM3IAR. 

tiling  (bat  is  past  :  but  Ibe  former  denotes  il  in  siicb  a  niaii 
ner,  tbat  there  J3  still  actually  remaining  some  part  of  tlie 
time  to  slide  away,  wiierein  we  declare  tl)e  thing  lias  beeu 
done;  whereas  the  imperfect  dcnotts  the  thing  or  action 
past  in  such  a  manner,  ihiit  nothing  remains  of  that  time  in 
-which  it  was  done.  If  we  speak  of  the  present  century,  we 
say,  "Philosophers  have  made  great  discoveries  in  the  pres- 
ent century  :  but  if  we  speak  of  the  last  century,  we  say^ 
'^Philosophers  made  great  discoveries  in  the  last  century." 
*'fle  has  been  much  afflicted  this  year  ;"  ''I  have  this  week 
read  the  king's  proclamation;"  '']  have  heard  great  n<nvs- 
this  morniug:''  in  these  instances,  "He  has  been,''  "1  have 
read,''  and  ''heard,''  denote  things  that  are  past ;  but  they 
occurred  in  this  year,  in  this  week,  and  to-day;  and  slilL 
there  remains  a  part  of  this  year,  week,  and  d«y,  whereof  I 
speak. 

In  general,  the  perfect  tense  may  be  apjdied  whercve? 
the  action  is  connected  with  the  present  time,  by  the  actual 
existence,  either  of  tlie  author,  or  of  the  work,  tliough  it 
m?^  have  been  performed  many  centuries  ago  ;  hut  if  nei- 
ther the  author  nor  the  work  now  rt  mains,  it  cannot  be 
used.  We  may  say,  "Cicero  has  written  orations  ;'*^  but 
Vie  cannot  say,  "Cicero  has  written  poems  ;"  l>ccause  the 
oratioua  are  in  being  but  the  poems  are  lost.  Speaking  of 
priests  in  general,  we  may  say,  'Hhey  have  in  all  agc^ 
claimed  great  powers ;"  because  the  general  order  of  the 
priesthood  still  exists;  but  if  we  speak  of  the  Drui'.ls,  as 
any  particular  order  of  priests,  which  does  not  now  exist, 
"vve  cannot  use  this  tense.  We  cannot  say,  "The  Druid 
priests  have  claimed  greeii  powers;"  but  must  say,  "The 
Druid  priests  claimed  great  powers;"  because  that  order  is 
»ow  totally  extinct.     See  Pickbolkn   on  the  English  Verb. 

The  Pluperfect  Tense  represents  a  thing, 
liotonly  as  past,  but  also  as  prior  to  some  other 
point  of  time  specified  in  the  sentence  :  as,  '*I 
had  finished  my  letter  before  he  arrived." 

TheFirst  Future  Tense  represents  the  action 
as  yet  to  come,  either  with  or  without  respect 
to  the  precise  time :  as,  "The  smi  will  rise  to- 
morrow ;"  ;^'I  shall  see  the^i  sgain." 


ETYMOLOGY.  79 

The  Second  Future  intimates  that  the  action 
will  be  fully  accomplished,  at  or  before  the 
time  of  another  future  action  or  event  :  as,  "I 
shall  have  dined  at  one  o'clock;"  "The  two 
houses  will  have  finished  their  business,  when 
the  king  comes  to  prorogue  them." 

It  is  to  be  ol^served,  that  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the 
event  being  s{)oIien  of  umler  the  condition  or  supposition,  or 
in  the  form  of  a  wish,  and  therefore  as  doubtful  and  con- 
tingent, the  verb  itself  in  the  present,  and  the  auxiliary  both 
of  the  present  and  past  imperfect  times,  often  carry  with 
tiiem  somewhat  of  a  future  tense  :  as,  "if  he  come  to-mor- 
row, I  may  speak  to  him;''  ''If  lie  shouhl  or  woukl  come 
to-morrow,  I  might,  would,  cor.ld,  or  should  speak  to  him," 
O'jserve  also,  Wvit  the  auxi5iaries  shoiiU  and  tvould,  in  the 
im,)errect  tinKS,  are  used  to  express  the  present  and  future 
as  well  as  the  past:  as,  "It  is  my  desire,  that  he  should,  or 
\vould,  come  now,  or  to-morrow ;"  as  well  as,  "It  vf as  my  de«^ 
sire,  that  he  should  or  v/ould  come  yesterday."  So  that  in 
tills  rno3  I,  the  precise  time  of  the  verb  is  very  much  deter- 
mined by  the  nature  and  drift  of  the  sentence. 

The  present,  past,  and  future  tenses,  may  be  used  either 
(iejimidy^  or  indfmiidii,  both  with  respect  to  time  and  ac- 
tion. When  they  denote  customs  or  habits,  and  not  individu- 
i\\  acts,  they  are  applied  indefinitely  :  as,  "Virtue  promotes 
happiness;"  "The  old  Romans  governed  by  benefits  more 
than  by  fear  ;"  "I  hhall  hereafter  employ  my  time  more 
usefully."  hi  these  examples  the  words,  prwnote^ governed, 
and  shall  employ,  are  used  indefinitely,  both  in  regard  to 
action  and  time;  for  they  are  not  confined  to  individual  ac- 
tions, nor  to  any  pre./ise  points  of  the  present,  past  of  future 
time.  When  tirey  are  applied  to  signify  particular  actions, 
and  to  ascertain  the  precise  points  of  time  to  which  they  are 
confined,  they  are  used  definitely  :  as  in  the  following  in- 
stances. "My  brother  {5  writing  ,•"  ''He  btnlt  the  house 
last  summer,  but  did  not  inhabit  it  till  yesteruMy."  "He  will 
Tvrite  another  letter  to-morrow." 

The  different  tenses  also  represent  an  action  as  complete 
or  perfect,  Qt:  as  incomplete^  or  imperfect.    In  the  phrases,  "1 


80  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

am  writing,"  *'I  was  writing,"  "I  shall  be  writing,"  impe if*  ct, 
unfinished  actions  are  signified.  But  the  following;  exam- 
ples, "1  wrote,"  '*I  have  written,"  *'l  had  written,"  'l  shal> 
have  written,"  all  denote  compU  Je  perfect  action. 

From  the  preceding  representation  of  the  ditit'rent  trn?i^<, 
it  ap{)ears  that  each  of  them  has  its  distinct  and  jjcnuilifT 
province;  and  that  though  some  of  them  mny  sometimes  \}(i 
used  promiscuously,  or  substituted  one  for  another,  in  ca?{  - 
where  great  accuracy  is  not  required,  yet  there  is  a  real  and 
essential  difference  in  their  meaning. — It  is  also  evident,  that 
the  English  language  contains  the  six  tenses  vvhicli  we  have 
enumerated.  Grammarians  who  limit  the  number  to  two, 
or  at  most  to  three,  namely,  the  present,  the  imperfect,  and 
the  future,  do  not  reilect  th:it  the  English  verb  is  mostly 
coni;)Osed  of  principal  and  auxiliary  ;  and  that  these  several 
parts  constitute  one  verl).  Either  the  English  language  hab 
no  future  tense,  or  its  future  is  composed  of  the  auxiliary 
and  the  principal  verb.  If  the  latter  he  true,  as  it  indisputa- 
bly is,  then  the  auxiliary  and  principal- united,  constiiute  a 
tense,  in  one  instance  ;  and,  from  reason  and  analogy,  may 
doubtless  do  so,  \a  others,  in  which  minuter  divisions  of  tin^e 
are  necessary,  or  useful.  What  reason  can  be  assigned  for 
not  coiiiidering  this  case,  ..s  other  cases,  in  which  a  whole 
is  regarded  as  composed  of  several  parts,  orof  [jrincipal  and 
atljuncls  ?  There  is  nothing  heterogeneous  in  the  parts  ;  and 
precedent,  analogy,  utility,  and  even  necessity,  authorize 
the  union. 

In  supj)ort  of  this  opinion,  we  hive  the  atithorily  of 
eminent  grammarians  ;  in  p.irticular,  thxt  of  Dr.  Bealtie. 
*'Some  writers  "  says  the  Doctor,  *  wiil  n>t  allow  any  thing 
lo  !)e  a  tense,  but  what,  in  o-ie  inflected  word,  expresses  an 
affirmation  with  time  ;  for  that  those  parts  of  the  verb  are 
not  properly  called  tenses,  ^hich  assume  that  a}>pearance, 
by  means  of  auxidary  words.  At  this  rate,  we  should  have 
in  English,  two  tenses  only,  the  present  and  the  past  in  the 
active  verb,  and  in  the  passive  no  tenses  at  all.  But  this  is 
a  needless  nicety ;  and,  if  adopted,  wowld  introduce  con* 
fusion  into  the  grammatical  art.  If  amavcram-  be  a  tense, 
why  should  not  amatus  fucram  ?  U  1  heard  he  a  tense,  1  did 
hear,  I  have  heard,  and  J  shall  hear,  must  be  equally  entitled 
to  that  oppellatiouo" 


ETYMOLOGY.  81 

The  proper  form  of  a  fense,  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
tongues,  is  certainly  that  which  it  has  in  the  grammars  of 
those  Langua^^cs.  But  in  the  Greek  anil  Latin  grammars, 
we  uniformly  find,  that  some  of  the  tenses  are  formed  hy 
variations  of  the  [vrincipal  verb;  and  others,  hy  the  addition 
of  lielping  verbs.  It  is,  therefore,  indisputable,  that  the 
principal  vep!)  or  the  participle,  and  an  auxiliary,  constitute 
a  regular  tense  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages.  This 
point  being  established,  v.e  may  doubtless,  apply  it  to  Eng- 
lish verbs  ;  and  extend  the  principle  as  far  as  convenience, 
and  the  idiom  of  our  language  require. 

if  it  should  be  said,  that,  on  the  same  ground  that  a  par- 
ticiple and  auxiliary  are  allowed  to  form  a  tense,  and  the 
verb  13  to  be  conjjigated  accordingly,  the  English  noun  and 
pronoun  ought  to  be  declinid  at  large,  with  articles  and 
prepositions ;  \\e  must  object  to  the  inference.  Such  a 
mode  of  declension  cannot  apply  to  our  language  this 
%ve  think  has  been  already  proved,*  It  is  also  confessedly 
inapplicable  to  the  learned  languages.  Where  then  is  the 
grammatical  inconsistency,  or  the  want  of  conformity  to  the 
principles  of  analogy,  in  making  some  tenses  of  the  English 
verb  to  consist  of  principal  and  auxiliary  :  and  the  cases 
of  English  nouns,  chieOy  in  their  termination  ?  The  argu- 
ment from  analogy,  instead  of  militating  against  us,  appears 
ic  confirm  and  establish  our  position. f 

We  shall  close  these  re. ii  irks  on  the  tenses,  with  a  few 
observations  extracted  from  the  Encyclopedia  Bkitan- 
^'ICA.  They  are  wo.tii  the  student's  attention,  as  a  part  of 
them  applies,  not  only  to  our  explanlion  of  the  tenses,  but 
to  m my  olher  part?  of  the  work.  ^'Harris  has  enumerated 
ir)  t\«\vtT  thnn  twelve  tense?,  (if  this  enumeration  we  can 
by  r.o  meuis  api^rove  ;  foe,  witboiit  eiitering  into  a  minute 
«:Kai}»:narii)n  of  i!,  noti:Liiic  can  be  Kiore  obvious,  than  that 
i;is  incfpf.ivr:  prc-nn.  ^'l  a;n  jioing  to  write,^'  is  a  future 
tpnse;alhi3  co  !:^.h:iii-c  prcs-iil^^'l  have  written,"  a  past 
tense.  But,  HB  wa:::  beib.-e  ohserved  of  the  classification  of 
v.ords,  we  canaol  lit-bi  IwAir^r^  of  o^iinion,  tiiat  to  take  the 
tenses  a©  they  hw.  coirM3)only  received,  and  endeavour  to  as- 
certain their  naf.iie  a!\d  their  dilTbreiices,  is  a  much  more 
useful  exercise,  as  well  as  mote  proper  fur  a  v/ork  of  this 

i  Sec  ya-C2  77.  VO,  <:■;,  -:',  vr;,  Ka,  ]..\  tir-i  i.L 


£2  •  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

kind,  than  to  raise  m  might  easily  be  raised,  new  theorks 
oa  tlie  subject."* 

ECT.  6.     The  Conjugation  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  to  have 
and  TO  BE. 
The  conjugation  of  a  verb,  is  the  regular 
combination  and    arrangement  of  its  several 
numbers,  persons,  moods,  and  tenses. 

The  conjugation  of  an  active  verb,  is  styled 
the  ACTIVE  VOICE ;  and  that  of  a  passive  verb, 

the  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

The  auxiliary  and   active  verb  to  have,  is 
conjugated  in  the  following  mannen 

TO  HAVE. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense, 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  Pers.  I  have.  1.  We  have. 

2.  Pers,  Thou  hast.  2.  Ye  or  you  have. 

'■'^:i,^:'£:' "'''']  3.Tbe,have. 

Imperfect  Tense.j 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  had.  1.  We  had. 

2.  Thou  hadst.  2.  Ye  or  you  had.. 

3.  He,  &c.  had.  3.  They  had. 

^The  foUowiDg  criticism  aTo^3  an  addhional  support  te  the  author's  systeoD  of  the 

"Under  the  hesd  of  Etymolopy»  tbe  author  of  thi-  grammar  judiciously  adheres  to 
ihe  natural  rimplv'ity  ofthe  English  ianguase  wilhuut  era'tarrassin^  the  learner  'wiij 
distinctions  peculiar'to  the  Latin  tongue.  The  difficult  subject  of  the  tenses,  is  cIchp- 
iy  explained;  and  with  less  incumbrance  of  technical  phiaseQlozy,  than  in  most  other 
fr:\minars."  AmlijllccLl  RcvUnu 

f  The  terms  ^v  hich  t\  e  have  adopted,  to  designate  the  three  past  lense?,  may  LOt  be 
exactly  signiiicant  of  their  nature  and  distinct  ion>\  But  as  Utey  are  i«ed  by  gram- 
marians in  *reneral,  and  have  an  establisheil  ^Authority ;  and  especially  as  the  liiean- 
in?  attached  to  each  of  them,  and  their  diflTerent  «io:fjificatioiiS  have  been  carefully 
explained;  we  presume  that  no  >olid  objection  can  be  ;n.nde  to  the  use  ot  term!?  sf> 
generally  approved,  and  so  explicitly  defined.  See  page  tJl.  We  are  supported  Jn 
tf.ose  sentiments,  by  the  authorifv  of  Dr.  Johnson.  See  the  first  note  in  Ms  "Gj-ani' 
mar  of  the  English  tongue,"  prefixed  to  his  Dictionary.— If,  however,  any  teachers 
should  think  it  warrantable  to  change  the  establiihed  names,  they  cannot  perhaps  f  nd 
any  more  appropriate,  than  the  ieiin^Jirst  preUriiy  tecOTidpjcterit,  and  tliird  prtlcrii- 


ETYMOLOGr, 


Singular, 
I  have  had. 
Thou  hast  had. 
He  ha«  had. 


Perfect  Tense. 


PluraL 
We  have  had. 
Ye  or  you  have  had. 
They  have  had. 


Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  PluraL 

I  had  had.  1.  We  had  had. 

Thou  hadst  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  had  had. 

He  had  liad.  3.  They  had  had. 

First  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural, 

I  shall  or  will  have.  K  We  shall  or  will  have. 

Thou  shall  or  wilt  have.  2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will 

He  shall  or  will  have.  have. 

3.  They  shall  or  will  have. 

Second  Future  Tense. 


Singular. 
I  shall  have  had. 
Thou  wilt  have  had. 
He  ^^  ill  have  had. 


PluraL 

1.  We  shall  have  had. 

2.  Ye  or  you  will  have 
had. 

3.  They  will  have  had. 


IMPERATIVE  MODE. 


Singular. 
Let  me  have. 
Have,  or  have  thou,  or  do 
thou  have. 
Let  him  have. 


PluraL 

1 .  Let  us  have. 

2.  Have,  or  have  ye,  or 
do  ye  or  you  have. 

3.  Let  them  have.* 


The  Imperative  mood  is  not  strictly  entitled  to  three  persons. 
The  command  is  always  addressed  to  the  second  person,  not  ta 
the  first  or  third.  For  when  we  say,  "Let  me  have,'*  **Let  him, 
or  let  them  have,"  the  meaning  and  construction  are,  4o  thou,  of 
do  ye,  let  me,  him  or  them  have.  In  philosophical  strictness, 
both  number  and  person  might  be  entirely  exckided  from  every 
verb.  They  are,  in  fact,  the  properties  of  substantives,  not  a 
part  of  the  essence  of  a  verb.  Even  the  name  of  the  impera^ 
tive  mood,  does  not  always  correspond  to  its  nature  :  for  it  some- 
times 2)€^i/ions  as  well  as  commands.    But  with  r-espectto  all  these 

^If  such  sentences  should  be  rigorously  examined,  the  Imperative  ^il}  appear  *:0 
consist  merely  iu  tbe  word  Ut.    ^e^Parsing,  p,  223. 


SI  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

points,  the  practice  of  our  graramarians  is  so  rnifonnly  fixed,  and 
so  aiialagous  to  t!)e  languages,  ancient  and  modern  which  our 
>'outh  have  to  study,  that  it  wouhl  be  an  unwarrantable  degree  ot* 
innovation,  to  deviate  IVom  the  established  terms  and  arrange- 
ments. See  the  advertisement  at  the  end  of  the  Introduction, 
page  8 ;  and  the  quotation  from  the  Encyclopedia  Britamiica» 
r.'ge  71. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Present  Tense, 
Si  nodular.  Plural, 

L  I  may  «r  can  have.  1.  We  may  or  can  have. 

J,  Thou  mayst  or  cansi.  have.  2.  Ye  or  ynu  may  or  can  have. 

>.  He  may  or  can  have.  3.  They  may  or  can  have. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural, 

.  1  might,  could,   would,   or  1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have,  should  have. 

-.  Th  >umighlst,canIdst,wonldst       2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 

or  shoukist  have.  would,  or  should  have. 

;.   He   might,  could,    uotiiJ.  o/       3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
should  have.  or  should  have. 

Perfect  Tense, 
Singular,  Plural. 

I  may  or  can  have  had.  1 .  We  may  oi  can  have  had. 

.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  huv(  L\  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 

had.  had. 

;    Iff'  may  or  can  have  had.  3.  They  may  or  can  have  had. 

Pluperfect  Tense, 
Slngvlar.  Plural, 

1.  I  mii<ht,  could,  would,  nr  1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
should  have  had.  or  should  have  had. 

L*.  Thou  mightst,  conldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 

woiddst,  or  shouldst  have  would,  cr  should  have  had. 

had.  3.  They  mi?ht,  could,  would 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  or  or  should  have  had.* 

should  have  bad. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense, 
Singular.  PluraL 

T.  If  I  have.  1.  If  we  hare. 

2.  If  thou  hare.f  2,  If  ye  or  you  have. 

3.  If  he  have.  3.  If  ther  have. 

*SkaU  ^xv^  rvill.  wben  they  denote  inclination,  resolution,  or  promisje,  may  be  con- 
sidered, as  well  as  their  relations  ihovld  and  vovld,  as  belonging  to  the  Polenti*. 
miMjd.  But  as  they  generally  signify  futurity,  they  have  been  appropriated,  as  help- 
ing verbs  to  the  formation  of  the  future  tenses  of  the  indicative  and  subjunctiv* 

tGrammarians,  in  general,  coniujiate  the  present  of  the  auxiliary  in  this  manner. 
Rut  we  presume  that  this  is  the  form  of  the  verb,  considcreU  as  e  princif  a/,  Dot  as  aa 
auxiliary  verb.    See  page  190.    Note  5. 


ETYMOLOGY,  ^5 

The  remaining  tensea  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  are,  in  every 
respect,  similar  to  the  eorrespondeut  tenses  of  the  indicative 
mood  ;*  with  the  addition  to  the  verb,  of  a  conjunction,  expressed 
or  implied,  denoting  a  condition,  motive,  wish,  supposition,  &c. 
It  will  be  proper  to  direct  the  learner  to  repeat  all  the  tenses  of 
this  mood,  with  a  conjunction  prefixed  to  each  of  them.  See,  on 
this  subject,  the  observations  at  page  96 ;  and  the  notes  on  the 
nineteenth  rule  of  syntax. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present,     To  have.  Perfect    To  have  bad. 

Partici'ples, 
Present  or  Active,  Having, 
Perfect.  Had. 

Compound  Perfect.    Having  had. 

As  the  subjunctive  mood,  in  English,  has  no  variation  ni  the 
form  of  the  verb,  from  the  indicative  (except  in  the  present  tense, 
and  the  second  future  tense,  of  verbs  generally,  and  the  present 
and  imperfect  tenses  of  the  verb  to  be)  it  would  be  superfluous  to 
conjugate  it  in  this  work,  through  every  tense.  But  all  the  oth- 
er moods  and  tenses  of  the  verbs,  both  in  the  active  and  passive 
voice,  are  conjugated  at  large,  that  the  learners  may  have  no 
doubts  or  misapprehensions  respecting  their  particular  forms. 
They  to  whom  the  subject  of  grammar  is  entirely  new,  andyoung 
persons  especially  are  much  more  readily  and  effectually  in- 
structed, by  seeing  the  parts  of  a  subject  so  essential  to  the  verb, 
unfolded  and  spread  before  them,  in  all  their  varieties,  than  by  be- 
ing generally  and  cursorily  informed  of  the  manner  in  which  they 
may  be  exhibited.  The  time  employed  by  the  scholars,  in  con- 
sequence of  this  display  of  the  verbs,  is  of  small  moment,  com- 
pared with  the  advantages  which  they  will  probably  derive  frona 
the  plan. 

It  may  not,  however,  be  generally  proper  for  young  persons  be- 
ginning the  study  of  grammar,  to  commit  to  memory  all  the  tens- 
es of  the  verbs.  U  the  simple  tenses,  namely,  the  present  nnd  the 
imperfect^  together  with  rhe  first  future  tense,  should  in  the  first 
instance,  be  committed  to  memory,  and  the  rest  carefully  perus- 
ed and  explained,  the  business  will  not  be  tedious  to  the  scholars 
and  their  progress  will  be  rendered  more  obvious  and  pleasing. 
The  general  view  of  the  subject,  thus  acquired  and  impressed, 
may  afterwards  be  extended  with  ease  and  advantage. 

*Exceptthat  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  and  plural  of  the  second  future, 
tense,  require  the  auxiliary  shall,  shall,  instead  of  nilt,  rvilL  Thus,  "fie  ni/^have 
completed  the  work  by  midsummer,"  is  the  indicative  form  •  but  the  subJuDctiye  is, 

It  b€  ihall  have  completed  the  work  by  usiUsummer.'* 

H 


86  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

It  appears  to  be  proper,  for  the  inforroation  of  the  learners,  to 
to  make  a  few  observations  in  this  place,  on  some  of  the  tenses, 
&c.  The  first  is,  that  in  the  potential  mood  some  grammarians 
confonnd  the  present  with  the  imperfect  tense  ;  and  the  ptrfect 
with  the  pluperfect.  But  that  they  are  really  distinct,  and  have 
an  appropriate  reference  to  time,  correspondent  to  the  defini- 
tions of  those  tenses,  will  appear  from  a  few  examples:  *'l  wish- 
ed him  to  stay,  but  he  nould  not:"  **I  could  not  accomplish  the 
business  in  time  ;"  "It  was  my  direction  that  he  skould  submit ;" 
**He  was  ill,  but  I  thought  he  might  live  ;"  '*!  may  have  misunder- 
stood him  ;"  *'He  cannot  have  deceived  me  ;"  *'He  might  have  Jin- 
ished  the  work  sooner,  but  he  could  not  have  done  it  better."  It 
must,  however,  be  admitted  that  on  some  occasions,  the  auxilia- 
ries might,  could,  would,  and  should,  refer  also  to  present  and  to 
future  time.     See  page  78. 

Tlie  next  remark  is,  that  the  auxiliary  ?i?7/,  in  the  first  person 
singular  and  plural  of  the  second  future  tense  ;  and  the  auxiliary 
shall  in  the  second  and  third  person  of  that  tense,  in  the  indica- 
tive mood,  appear  to  be  incorrectly  applied.  The  impropriety 
of  such  associations  may  be  infenxMl  from  a  fow  examples;  "I  will 
liave  had  previous  notice  whenever  the  event  happens  ;"  *'Thon 
shall  have  served  thy  apprenticeship  before  the  end  of  the  year;" 
•*He  shall  have  completed  his  business  when  the  messenger  ar- 
rives." *'l  shell  have  had  ;  thou  nilt  have  served  ;  he  will  have 
completed,"  &c.  would  have  been  correct  and  applicable.  The 
peculiar  import  of  these  auxiliaries,  as  explained  in  page  92,  un- 
der section  7,  seems  to  account  for  their  impropjiety  in  the  ap- 
plications just  mentioned. 

Some  writers  on  Grammar  object  to  the  propriety  of  admitting 
the  second  futiu-f,  in  both  the  indiciUivo  anti  subjunctive  moods  ; 
but  that  this  tense  is  applicable  to  both  moods,  will  be  manifest 
from  the  following  examples.  *'Jol!ii  will  have  earned  his  wages 
the  next  new-yenr's  day,"  is  a  simple  declaration,  and  therefore 
in  the  indicative  mood  :  **If  he  shall  have  finished  his  work  when 
the  bell  rings,  he  will  be  entitled  to  the  reward,"  is  conditional 
and  contingent,  and  is  therefore  in  the  suhjunctive  mood. 

We  shall  conclude  these  detached  observatiojis.  with  one  remark 
which  may  be  useful  to  the  young  scholar,  namely,  that  as  the  in- 
dicative mood  is  converted  into  the  suljunciive,  by  the  expres- 
sion of  a  condition,  motive,  wish,  supposition.  Sic.  being  super- 
added to  it :  so  the  potential  mood  may,  in  like  manner,  be  turn- 
ed into  the  subjunctive;  as  wili  be  seen  in  the  following  exam- 
ples; *'lf  I  could  deceive  him,  I  should  abhor  it;"  '^Though  he 
should  increase  in  wealth,  he  would  not  be  ciiaritable;"  -'Even  in 
prosperity  he  would  gain  no  esteem,  unless  he  should  conduct  him- 
self better." 


ETYMOIiOGY.  87 

JTho  auxiliary  and  neuter  verb  To  be^  is  conjugated  as  follows  : 
TO  BE, 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense 

Singular.  Plural. 

\.  I  am.  1.  We  are. 

2.  Tlioii  art.  2^  Yc  or  yon  are, 

■^'.  He,  she  or  it  is.  3.  They  are. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

K  1  was.  1    VVe  were. 

2.  Thou  wast.  2.  Ye  or  you  were. 

3.  He  was.  3.  Tliey  were. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been.  1.  We  Iiave  been. 

2.  Thou  hast  been.  2.  Ye  or  you  i)ave  been. 

3.  He  hath  or  has  been.  3.  They  iiave  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  1  had  been.  1.  We  had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been.  2.  Ye  or  you  ]>ad  been, 

3.  He  had  been.  3.  They  had  been. 

First  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be.  1.  We  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  Thou  Shalt  or  wilt  be.  2.  Yeoryoushall  or  will  be. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be.  3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 

Second  Future  Ttmc. 
Singular.  Plur    . 

1.  I  siiall  have  been.  1.  We  shail  have  been. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been.  2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  been. 

3.  He  will  have  been.  3.  They  will  have  been. 


eg  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Sing\ilar.  Plural, 

1.  Let  ine  be.  1.  Let  us  be. 

2.  lie  thou  or  do  thou  be.  2.  Be  ye  o:-  yon,  or  do  ye  be. 
8.  Let  him  be.  3.  L-et  them  be. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
f)(n;rxiiar.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  be.  1.  We  may  or  can  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  be.  2.  3fe  or  you  m«iy  or  can  be. 

3.  He  may  or  can  be.  3.  They  may  or  can  bc« 

Imperfect  Tens^* 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  iiii^^ht,  couhl,  wohM,  or  L  We  might,  could,  ^vould, 
should  Im?.  or  should  be. 

2.  Thou  mijihtst,  rouhlst,  2.  Ye  or  you  midit,  could, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  ho.  wouhl,  or  should  be. 

3.  lie  luizht,  could,  would^  3.  They  might,  could,  would 
or  should  be.  or  should  be. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  1  may  or  can  have  l>ceD.  1.  We  may  or  cas  have  been. 

2.  Tliuu  mayst  or  canst  have  2.  Ve  or  you  may  or  can 
been.  liave  been. 

1.  He  may  or  can  bave  been.  3.  They  may   or  can  have 

been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1.  We  mipht,  could,  would, 
should  have  l^ecn.  or  should  have  been. 

2.  Thou  michlKt,  couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  80uld, 
would^t,  or  shouldst  have  woidd,  or  should  have 
been.                                                     beon. 

3.  He  mip^ht,  could,  would,  or  3.  They  might,  could,  would 
should  have  been.  or  should  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pr^ent  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  1  be.  1.  If  we  be, 

2.  If  thou  be.  2.  If  ye  or  you  Im? 

3.  If  he  be.  3.  If  they  be. 


ETYMOLOGY.  »» 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plurah 

1.  If  I  were.  1.  Jt'  we  were. 

2.  ir  thou  wert.  2.  It*  ye  or  you  were. 

3.  ir  he  were.  3.  If  they  were. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood  are  in  general,  similar  to  the 
correspondent  tenses  of  the  Indicative  mood.  See  pages  84,  96^, 
97,  and  the  notes  nnder  the  nineteenth  rule  of  syntax. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.    To  be.        Perfect.    To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.     Being  Perfect.    Been, 

Compound  Perfect    Having  been. 

Sect.  7.     The  Auociliary  Verbs  conjugated  in  their  simple  form  ^ 
with  observations  on  their  peculiar  nature  and  force. 

The  learner  will  perceive  that  the  preceding  auxiliary  verbs, 
to  have  and  to  6e,  could  not  be  conjugated  through  all  the  moods 
and  tenses,  without  the  help  of  other  auxiliary  verbs  ;  namely, 
rnay,  can^  will,  shall,  and  their  variations. 

That  auxiliary  verbs,  in  their  simple  state,  and  unassisted  by- 
others,  are  of  a  very  limited  extent,  and  that  they  are  chiefly 
useful,  in  the  aid  which  they  aflbrd  in  conjugating  the  principal 
verbs,  will  clearly  appear  to  the  scholar,  by  a  distinct  conjugatiou 
of  each  of  them,  uncombined  with  any  other.  They  are  exhib- 
ited for  his  inspection  ;  not  to  be  committed  to  memory. 

TO  HAVE. 

Present  Tense , 
Sing.  1.  I  have.  2.  Thou  hast.  3.  He  hath  or  ha<^, 

Piur.  L  We  have.        2.  Ye  or  you  have.      3.  Tiiey  have. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Sing.  1.  I  had  2.  Thou  hadst.  3.  He  had. 

Plur.  1.  We  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  had,       3.  They  had. 

Perfect.  I  have  had#  ^c.  Pluperfect.     I  had  had,  &c. 

PariidpUs, 
Present.     Haviivg.  Perfect,    B.ixd^, 

H  2 


90 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


TO  BE. 

Sing, 
Plur. 

1. 

1. 

I  am. 

We  are. 

Present  Tense. 

2.  Thou  art. 

2.  Ye  or  you  are. 

3.  He  is. 
3.  They  are. 

Sing. 
Plur. 

1. 

1. 

I  was. 
We  were. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

2.  Thou  wast. 

2.  Ye  or  you  were. 

3.  He  was. 
3.  They  were. 

Present.    Be 

Participles, 
ing.                         Perfect. 

Been. 

SHALL. 

Sing. 
Plur. 

I  slial!.* 
We  shall. 

Present  .Tense. 

2.  Thou  Shalt. 

2.  Yc  c/r  you  shall. 

3.  He  shall. 
3.  They  shall. 

Sing. 
Plur. 

1- 

1  shoiiW. 
We  shouJd. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
2.  Thou  shouldst. 
2.  Ye  ar  you  should. 

If  ILL. 

3.  He  should. 
3.  They  should. 

Sing. 
Plur. 

1 , 

I  w'lM. 
We  Will. 

Present  Tense. 
2.  Thou  wilt. 
2.  Ye  or  you  will. 

3.  He  will. 
3.  They  will. 

.^ing. 
Plur. 

I  would. 
We  would. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
2.  Thou  wouldst. 
2.  Ye  or  you  would, 

MAY. 

3.  He  would. 
3.  They  would. 

Sing. 
Plur. 

I  may. 
,  We  may. 

Present  Tense, 
2.  Thou  may  St. 
2.  Ye  or  you  may. 

3.  He  may. 
3.  They  may. 

Sing. 
Plur. 

.  I  might. 
.  We  might. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
2.  Thou  mightst. 
2.  Ye  or  you  might. 

3.  He  might. 
3.  They  might 

*Shall  is  here  properly  used  in  the  present  teose,  having  the  same  anaJogy  to  should 
ibat  Cdn  bag  to  covld,  may  to  might,  aod  will  to  nould. 


ETYxMOLOGY.  91 

CAN. 

Present  Tense. 
Sing,  1.  I  can.  2.  Thou  canst.  3.  He  can. 

Plural.  We  can.  2.  Ye  or  you  can.  3.  They  can. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
Sing.  1.  I  could.  2.  Thou  couldst.  3.  He  could. 

Phir.  1.  We  could.  2.  Ye  or  you  could.  3.  They  could. 

TO  DO. 

Present  Tense. 
Sing.  1.  I  do.  2.  Thou  dost.  3.  He  doth  or  does. 

Plur.  1.  We  do.  2.  Ye  or  you  do         3.  They  do. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Sing.  1.  I  did.  2.  Thou  didst.  3.  He  did. 

Plur.  I.  We  did.  2.  Ye  or  you  did.        3.  They  did. 

Participles. 
Present.    Doing.  Perfect  Done. 

The  verbs  have,  be,  willy  and  do,  when  they  are  unconnected 
Avith  a  principal  verb,  expressed  or  understood,  are  not  auxiliaries, 
but  principal  verbs  :  as,  *'We  have  enough  ;"  *'I  am  grateful  ;" 
*'He  ivUls  it  to  be  so  ;"  "They  do  as  they  please.'*  In  this  view, 
they  also  have  their  auxiliaries :  as,  *'I  shall  have  enough  ;*'  *'I 
will  be  grateful,"  &c. 

The  peculiar  force  of  the  several  auxiliaries  will  appear  from  the 
following  account  of  them. 

Da  and  did  mark  the  action  itself,  or  the  time  of  it,  with  great- 
er energy  and  positiveness  :  as,  *'l  do  speak  truth;"  *'I  did  re- 
spect liim  ;'*  "Here  am  I,  for  thou  didst  call  me."  They  are  of 
great  use  in  negative  sentences  ;  as,  **I  do  not  fear ;"  "1  did  not 
write."  They  are  almost  universally  employed  in  asking  ques- 
tions :  as,  ^'Does  he  learn  ?"  *'Did  he  not  write  ?"  They  some- 
times also  supply  the  place  4)f  another  verb,  and  make  the  repiti- 
tion  of  it,  in  the  same  .or  a  subsequent  sentence,  unnecessary  :  as, 
"You  attend  not  tcyyour  stndiesas  he  does  ;"  (i.  e.  as  he  attends, 
&c.)  "1  shall  come  if  I  can ;  but  if  I  do  not,  please  to  excuse  me ;" 
(i.  e.  if  I  come  not.) 


92  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Let  not  only  expresses  permission,  but  entreating,  exhorting, 
commanding  :  as,  *'Let  us  know  the  truth  ;"  *'Let  me  die  the 
death  of  the  righteous  ;'*  **Let  not  my  heart  be  tovi  much  elated 
with  success;'*  *'Let  thy  inclination  submit  to  thy  duty.** 

Ma^  and  might  express  thepossibi!ity  or  liberty  of  doing  a  thing; 
can  AWii  could  t  the  power:  as,  **It  may  r^^in  ;"  *'I  may  write  or 
read  ;'*  ^'He  might  have  improved  more  than  he  has ;"  *'He  can 
write  ranch  better  than  he  could  last  year.*' 

Must  Is  sometimes  called  in  for  a  helper,  aud  denotes  necessity  j 
as,  **We  must  speak  the  truth,  whenever  we  do  speak,  and  must 
not  prevaricate  ** 

IVill,  in  the  first  person  singular  and  plural,  intimates  res- 
olution and  premising ;  in  (be  second  and  third  person,  on- 
ly foretels  :  as,  *'l  ^vill  reward  Ihe  good,  and  will  punish  the 
wicked;^'  "We  will  remember  benefits,  and  be  grateful;" 
"Thou  wilt,  or  he  will,  repent  of  that  folly ;"  "You  or  they 
will  have  a  pleasant  walk.'' 

Shally  on  the  contrary,  in  the  first  person,  simply  fore- 
tels; in  the  second  and  third  persons,  promises,  commands, 
or  threatens :  as,  "1  sb?.ll  go  abroad;"  "We  shall  dine  at 
home;"  "Thou  shalt,  or  you  shall,  inherit  the  land;" 
"Ye  shall  do  justice,  and  love  mercy;"  "They  shall  ac- 
count for  their  misconduct."  The  following  passage  is  not 
translated  according  to  the  distinct  and  proper  meanings 
of  the  words  shall  and  will :  "Surely  goodness  and  mercy 
sliall  follow  me  all  the  days  of  my  life ;  and  I  mil  dwell 
in  the  house  of  the  Lord  forever:"  It  ought  to  be,  ''Will 
follow  me,"  and  "1  6kall  dwell."  The  foreigner  who,  as 
it  is  said,  fell  into  the  Thames,  and  cried  out,  "I  mil  be 
drowned,  nobody  shali  help  me ;"  made  a  sad  misapplica- 
tion of  these  auxiliaries. 

These  observations  respecting  the  import  of  the  verbs 
tvill  and  shall,  must  be  understood  of  explicative  sentences ; 
for  when  the  sentence  is  interrogative,  just  the  reverse,  for 
the  most  part,  takes  place  :  thus,  "J  shall  go;  you  will  go; 
express  event  only  :  but,  "m//  you  go  ?"  imports  intention  ; 
ami,  ^shaU  I  go  f'  refers  to  the  will  of  another.  But,  "He 
shall  go,"  and  '^shall  he  go  ?"  both  imply  will ;  expressing 
or  referring  to  a  command. 

When  the  verb  is  put  in  the  subjunctive  mooil,  the 
meaning  of  these  auxiliaries,  likewise  undergoes  some  alter^ 
ation;  as  the  learners  will  readily  perceive  by  a  few  exam- 


ETYMdLOGY.  9p 

pies :  "He^  shall  proceed ;"  "If  he  shall  proceed  ;"  "you 
5M/ consent;"  ''U you  shall  consent."  These  auxiliaries 
are  sometimes  interchanged,  in  the  indicative  and  suhjune- 
live  moods,  to  convey  the  same  meaning  to  the  auxiliary ; 
as,  "He  will  not  return  ;"  "If  he  shall  not  return ;"  "He  shall 
not  return ;"  "If  he  mill  not  return." 

IVmild^  primarily  denotes  inclination  of  will ;  and  should^ 
obligation :  but  they  both  vary  their  import,  and  are  often 
used  to  express  simple  event. 

Sect.  8.     The  Conjugation  of  Regular  Verbs. 

ACTIVE. 

Verbs  Active  are  called  Regular,  when  they 
form  their  imperfect  tense  of  the  indicative 
mood,  and  their  perfect  participle,  by  adding 
to  the  verb,  ed,  or  <??  only  when  the  verb  ends  in 
e:  as. 

Present.  Imperfect.            Per.  Participle. 

I  favor.  I  favored.             Favored. 

I  love.  I  loved.                 Loved. 

A  Regular  Active  Verb  is  conjugated  ia  the  following 
dianncr. 

TO  LOVE 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural, 

1.  I  love*  1.  We  love. 

2.  Thou  loves t.  2.  Ye  or  you  love. 

3.  He,  she,  or  it,  loveth  or  loves.     3.  They  love. 

linperfcct  Tense. 


Singular, 

Pkiral 

J.  I  loved. 

I.  We  loved. 

2.  Thou  lovedst. 

2.  Ye  or  you  loved. 

3,  He  loved. 

3.  They  loved. 

*In  the  preseqt  and  imperfect  tenaoa,  we  use  a  different  form  of  the  verb,  whea 
we  mean  to  express  energy  and  positiveness  :  as,  "I  do  love  :  thou  4Qst  love  .  he 
don  love  I  I  did  lovej  thou  didst  love  ;  he  did  love." 


94  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Perfect  Tense, 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  have  loved.  1.  We  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  hasf  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  have  loved. 

3.  He  hath  or  has  loved.         3.  They  have  loved. 

Plupctfect  Tense, 
F^ingular,  Plural, 

1.  1  had  loved.  1.  We  had  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved.  2.  Ye  or  yon  had  loved. 

3.  He  had  loved.  3.  They  had  loved. 

First  Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural, 

1.  I  shall  or  will  love.  7.  We  shall  or  will  love. 

2.  Thou  shall  or  wilt  love.  2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  love. 

3.  He  shall  ar  will  love.  3.  They  shall  or  will  love. 

Second  Future  Tense. 

Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  shall  have  loved.  1.  We  shall  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  loved. 

3.  He  w  ill  have  loved.  3.  They  will  have  loved. 

Those, Tenses  are  called  simple  tenses,  which  are  formed 
of  the  principnl,  without  an  auxiliary  verh;  as,  *'I  love, 
I  loved"  The  compound  tenses  are  such  as  cannot  be 
formed  without  an  auxiliary  verb:  as,  "I  hjLve  ]o\e(] ;  I 
had  loved ;  I  shall  or  jvill  love ;  I  77iay  love  :  I  maij  be 
loved;  I  maij have bfcn  loved;"  &c.  These  compounds  are, 
however,  to  be  cousidered  as  only  different  forms  of  the  same 
verb. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Singular,  Plural, 

1.  Let  me  love.  1.   Let  us  love. 

2.  Love,  or  love  thou,  or  do  2.  Love,  or  love  ye  or  yon,  or 
thou  love.  do  ye  love. 

3.  Let  him  love.  3.  Let  them  love. 


ETYMOLOGY.  '^ 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense, 

Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I  may  or  can  love.  1.  We  may  or  can  love. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  love.2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  love. 

3.  He  may  or  can  love.  3.  He  may  or  can  love. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or    1.  We  might,   could,  avouH 
should  love.  or  should  love. 

2.  Thou    mighfst,   couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you   might,  could, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  love.        would,  or  shouhl  love. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  love.  or  should  love. 

Perfect  Tense 
Singular,  Plural. 

1 .  I  may  or  can  have  loved.     1 .  We  may  or  can  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have  2.  Ye  or  you  may  ar  can  have 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have         3.  They  may,  or  can  have 
loved.  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense, 

Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1.  We   might,   could,  would, 
should  have  loved.  or  should  have  loveii. 

2.  Thou    mightst,    couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  would,  or  should  have 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  loved.  or  should  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  PluraL 

1.  If  I  love.  1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  thou  love.  .  2.  If  ye  cr  you  love. 

3.  If  he  love  3.  if  they  love. 


0d  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  remainiDg  tenses  of  this  mocnl,  are  hi  general,  simi* 
lar  to  the  corresponding  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood. 
See  page  84   and  page  97. 

It  may  be  of  use  to  the  scholar  to  remark,  in  this  place, 
that  though  only  the  conjunction  if  is  affixed  to  the  verb, 
any  .other  conjunction  proper  for  the  subjunctive  mooil  may, 
with  equal  propriety,  be  occasionally  annexed.  The  in- 
stance given  is  sufficient  to  explain  the  subject :  more  ^\'ouId 
be  tedious,  and  tend  to  embarrass  the  learner. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present.     To  love.  Perfect.     To  have  loved. 

Participles. 

Present.     Loving.  Perfect.     Loved. 

Compound  P erf e4:i.     Having  loved. 

The  active  verb  may  be  conjugated  differently,  by  add- 
ing its  present  or  active  participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb 
to  be,  through  all  its  mooils  and  tenses;  as,  instead  of  "I 
teach,  thou  teachest,  he  teaches,*'  &c. ;  we  may  say,  ''1  am 
teaching,  thou  art  teaching,  he  is  teaching,"  <fcc.  :  and  in- 
stead of  "I  taught,"  &c.  "1  was  teaching,"  &c.  :  and  so  on, 
through  all  the  variations  of  the  auxiliary.  This  mode  of 
conjugation  has,  on  particular  occasions,  a  peculiar  proprie- 
ty;  and  contributes  to  the  harmony  and  j)recision  of  the  lan- 
guage. These  forms  of  expression  are  adapted  to  particular 
acts,  and  not  to  general  habits,  or  affections  of  the  mind. 
They  are  very  frequently  applied  to  neuter  verbs  jas,  "1  am 
musing ;  he  is  sleeping.""^ 

Some  grammarians  apply,  what  is  called  the  conjunctive 
termination.,  to  the  persons  of  the  principal  verb,  and  to  its 
auxiliaries,  tlirough  all  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood. 
But  this  is  certainly  contrary  to  the  practice  of  good 
writers.  Johnson  applies  this  termination  to  the  pns- 
ent  and  perfect  tenses  only.  Lowth  restricts  it  entire- 
ly to  the  present   tense;  and  Priestly  confines  it  to   the 

*  As  the  participle,  in  this  mode  of  conjufatioo,  perform?  the  office  of  a  verb 
through  all  the  moods  and  tenses  ;  and  as  it  implies  the  joea  of  time,  and  governs  th^ 
objective  case  of  nouns  and  pronouns,  iu  the  same  manner  as  vpi-^s  do  ;  is  it  not  man- 
ifest, that  i*  is  a  species  or  forai  oC  tbe  Terbi  wl  tbat  it  wiaQ&t  b«  properly  coiisidererf 
a»  a  distinct  part  of  speech  'I 


ETYMOLOGY  97 

present  and  imperfect  tenses.  This  difference  of  opinion 
amongst  grammarians  of  such  eminence,  may  have  con- 
tributed to  that  diversity  of  practice,  so  observable  in  the 
use  of  the  subjunctive  mood.  Uniformity  in  this  point  is 
hio^hly  desirable.  It  ^vouid  materially  assist  both  teachers 
and  learners;  and  would  constitute  a  considerable  im- 
provement in  our  language.  On  this  subject  we  adopt  the 
opinion  of  Dr.  Lowth  ;  and  conceive  we  are  fully  warrant- 
ed by  his  authority,  and  that  of  the  most  correct  and  elegant 
writers,  in  limiting  the  conjunctive  termination  of  the  prin- 
pal  verb,  to  the  second  and  third  person  singular  of  the 
present  tense. 

Grammarians  have  not  only  differed  in  opinion,  respect- 
ing the  extent  and  variations  of  the  subjunctive  mood; 
but  a  few  of  them  have  even  doubted  the  existence  of  such 
a  mood  in  the  English  language.  These  writers  assert, 
that  the  ve^b  has  no  variation  from  the  indicative;  and 
that  a  conjunction  added  to  the  verb,  gives  it  no  title  to  be- 
come a  distinct  mood  ;  or,  at  most,  no  better  than  it  would 
have,  if  any  other  particle  were  joined  to  it.  To  these 
observations  it  may  be  replied ;  1st.  It  is  evident,  on  in- 
spection, that,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present  tense 
of  the  principal  verbs,  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  of 
the  verb  to  be,  and  the  second  and  third  person,  in  both 
numbers,  of  the  second  future  tense  of  all  verbs;*  require 
a  variation  from  the  forms  which  those  tenses  have  in  the 
indicative  mood.  So  much  difference  in  the  form  of  the 
verb,  would  warrant  a  correspondent  distinction  of  mood, 
though  the  remaining  parts  of  the  subjunctive  were,  in  all 
respects,  similar  to  those  of  the  indicative.  In  other  lan- 
guages, a  principle  of  this  nature  has  been  admitted,  both 
in  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  and  the  declension  of  nouns. 
2d.  There  ajipears  to  be  as  much  propriety  in  giving  a 
conjunction  the  power  of  assisting  to  form  the  subjunctive 
mood,  as  there  is  in  allowing  the  particle  to  to  have  aa 
effect  in  the  formation  of  the  infinitive  mood.f     3d,  A  con* 

*  We  think  it  has  been  proved  that  the  auxiliary  is  a  constituent  part  of  the  verb  t» 
which  it  relates  ;  that  the  principal  and  iti  auxiliary  form  but  one  verb. 

fConjunctions  have  an  influence  on  the  mood  of  the  following  verb.    Dr.  Seattie. 

ConjunctioDS  have  sometiwes  a  goveromeot  oC  moods,  Dr.  Lonth. 


08  ENGLISH  GRA^LMAR. 

junction  added  to  the  verb,  shows  the  manner  of  being, 
doing,  or  suffering,  ^vhich  other  particles  cannot  show  : 
they  do  not  coalesce  with  the  verb,  and  modify  it,  as  con- 
junctions do.  4th.  It  may  be  said,  "If  contingency  con- 
;9titutes  the  subjunctive  mood,  then  it  is  the  sense  of  a 
phrase  and  not  a  conjunction  that  determines  this  mood." 
But  a  little  reflection  will  show,  that  the  contingent  sense 
lies  in  the  meaning  and  force  of  the  conjunction,  expressed 
or  understood. 

This  subject  may  be  further  illustrated,  by  the  following 
observations.  Moods  have  a  foundation  in  nature.  They 
show  what  is  certain;  what  is  possible;  what  is  condi- 
tional; what  is  commanded.  They  express  also  other 
conceptions  and  volitions  :  all  signifying  the  manner  of  be- 
ing, doing,  or  suffering.  But  as  it  would  tend  to  obscure, 
rather  than  elucidate  the  subject,  if  the  mooils  were  particu- 
larly enumerated,  grammarians  have  very  properly  given 
them  such  combinations  and  arrangements,  as  serve  to  ex- 
plain the  nature  of  this  part  of  language,  and  to  render  the 
knowledge  of  it  easily  attainable. 

The  grammars  of  some  languages  contain  a  greater  num- 
ber of  moods,  than  others,  and  exhibit  them  in  dif- 
ferent forms.  The  Greek  and  Roman  tongues  denote  them 
by  particular  variations  in  the  verb  itself.  This  form,  how- 
ever, was  the  effect  of  ingenuity  and  improvement ;  it  is 
not  essential  to  the  nature  of  the  subject.  The  moods  may 
be  as  effectually  designated  by  a  plurality  of  words,  as  by  a 
change  in  the  appearance  of  a  single  word :  because  the 
same  ideas  are  denoted,  and  the  same  ends  accomplished,  by 
either  manner  of  expression. 

On  this  ground  the  moods  of  the  English  verb,  as  well  as 
the  tenses,  are  with  great  propriety  formed  partly  by  the 
principal  verb  itself,  and  partly  by  the  assistance  which  that 
verb  derives  from  other  words.  For  further  observations, 
relative  to  the  views  and  sentiments  here  advanced:  See 
pages  72—74.     77—80.     102—104!     188—190. 

PASSIVE. 

Verbs  passive  are  called  regulai,  when  they 
form  their  perfect  participle  by  the  addition  of  rf 
or  ed  to  the  verb ;  as,  from  the  verb  "To  love/' 


ETYMOLOGY.  99 

is  formed  the  passive,  "I  am  loved,  I  was  loved, 
I  shall  be  loved,"  &c. 

A  passive  verb  is  conjugated  by  adding  the 
perfect  participle  to  the  auxiliary  to  bcy  through 
all  its  changes  of  number,  person,  mood,  and 
tense,  in  the  following  manner. 

TO  BE  LOVED. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 

Singular, 

Plural 

i. 

I  am  loved. 

1.  We  are  loved. 

2. 

Thou  art  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  are  loved 

3. 

He  is  loved. 

3.  They  are  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural 

1.  I  "was  loved.  1.  We  were  loved. 

2.  Thou  wast  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  were  loved, 

3.  He  was  loved.  3.  They  were  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been  loved.  1.  We  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hasf  been  loved.         2.  Ye  or  you  have  been  lovedi 

3.  He  hath  or  has  been  loved.  3.  They  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural 

1.  I  bad  been  loved.  1.  We  had  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  voved.     2.  Ye  or  you  had  been  loved. 

3.  He  had  been  loved.  3.  They  had  been  loved. 

First  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be  loved.      1.  We  shall  or  will  beloved. 

2.  Thou   shalt  or  wilt  be     2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  be 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  loved.  3.  They  shall  or  will  beloved. 


100  ENGLISH  GRAMMA  R. 

Second  Future  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

2.  I  shall  have  been  loved.     1.  We  shall  have  been  loved. 
1.  Thou    wilt    have    been     2.  Ye  or  you  will   have  been 

loved.  loved. 

3,  He  shall  have  been  loved.   3.  They  will  have  been  loved. 

LMPERATIVE  ^^ODE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Let  me  be  loved.  1.  Let  us  be  loved. 

2.  Be  thou  loved,  or  do  thou  2.  Be  ye  or  you  loved,  or  do 
be  loved.  ye  be  loved. 

3.  Let  him  be  loved.  3.  Let  them  be  loved. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  be  loved.       L  We  may  or  c^n  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  may  est  or  canst  be     2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  be 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  be  loved.     3.  They  may  or  can  be  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  m!'j;ht,  could,  would,  or  \.  We  raiijjht,  could,  would, 

sh'>'iid  be  lovel.  or  should  he  loved. 

'2.  Thou   mi;^hi?t,   coulJdt,  2.   Ye  or  you  mis^ht,  could, 

wouldst,  or  sliouUl^t  be  would,  or  shyuld  be 

loved.  loved. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would 

or  should  be  loved.  or  should  be  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  have  been     1.   We  may  or  can  have  been 
loved.  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have     2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 
been  loved.  been  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  been  3.  They  may  or  can  have  been 
loved.  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


101 


Singular, 


Pluperfect  Tense, 

Pural. 

1.  We   might,  could,  v;ould, 

or  should  have  been  loved. 

2  Ye    or  you   might,   could, 

would,  or  should  have  been 

loved. 

He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  been  loved.       or  should  have  been  loved> 


.  I  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have  been  loved. 

.  Thou  mightst,  couldst, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have 
been  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  be  loved. 

2.  If  thou  be  loved. 

3.  If  he  be  loved. 


Frcsent  Tense 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  be  loved. 

2.  If  ye  or  you  be  loved. 

3.  If  they  be  loved. 


Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were  loved.  1.  If  we  were  loved. 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved.  2.  If  ye  or  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  he  were  loved.  3.  If  they  were  loved. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood  are,  in  general,  similar 
to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood.  See 
pages  84,  97,  and  the  notes  under  the  nineteenth  rule  of 
syntax. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 
To  be  loved 


Perfect. 
To  have  been  loved. 


Participles. 

Present  Tense.  Being  loved> 

Perfect  or  Passive.  Loved. 

Compound  Perfect.  Having  been  loved. 

When  an  auxiliary  is  joined  to  the  participle  of  the  prin- 
cipal verb,  the  auxiliary  goes  through  all  the  variations  of 
person  and  number,  and  the  participle  itself  continues  in- 
variably  the  same.    When  there  are  two  or  more  siuxilla- 
I  2 


102  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

riea  joined  to  the  participle,  the  first  of  them  only  is  varied 
according  the  person  and  number.  The  auxiliary  must  ad- 
mits of  no  vari«atiou. 

The  neuter  verb  is  conjugated  like  the  active;  but  as  it 
partakes  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  admits, 
in  mi'.ny  instances  of  the  passive  form,  retaining  still  the 
neuter  signification;  as,  "I  am  arrived;"  ^'I  was  gone;'' 
*'I  am  grown."  The  auxiliary  verb  «?;?,  wa^,  in  this  case, 
precisely  detmes  the  time  of  the  action  or  event,  but  does 
not  change  the  nature  of  it :  the  passive  form  still  express- 
ing not  properly  a  passion,  but  only  a  state  or  condition  of 
being. 

Sect.  9.     Observations  on  Passive  Verbs, 

Some  writers  on  Grammar  assert,  that  there  are  no  Pas- 
sive verbs  in  the  English  language,  because  we  have  no 
verbs  of  tliis  kind  with  a  peculiar  termination,  all  of  them 
being  formed  by  the  different  tenses  of  the  auxiliary  to  be, 
joined  to  the  passive  participle  of  the  verb.  This  is,  how- 
ever, to  mistake  the  true  nature  of  the  English  verb;  and 
to  regulate  it,  not  on  the  principles  of  our  own  tongue,  but 
on  those  of  foreign  languages.  The  conjugation,  or  the  va- 
riation of  the  English  verb,  to  answer  all  the  purposes 
of  verbs,  is  occomplished  by  the  means  of  auxiliaries  ;  and 
if  it  be  alleged  that  we  have  no  passive  verbs,  because  we 
cannot  exhibit  them  without  having  recourse  to  helping 
verbs,  it  may  with  equal  truth  be  said,  that  we  have  no  per- 
fect, phipcrfcct,  or  future  tense,  in  the  indicative  or  sub- 
junctive mood,  since  these,  as  well  as  some  other  parts  of 
the  verb  active,  are  formed  by  auxiliaries. 

Even  the  Greek  and  Latin  passive  verbs  require  an  aux- 
iliary to  conjugate  some  of  their  tenses  ;  namely,  the  for- 
mer, in  the  preterit  of  the  optative  and  su!)junctive  moods; 
and  the  latter,  in  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  of  the  indica- 
tive, the  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  future,  of  the  subjunctive 
mcod,  and  the  pertect  of  the  infinitive.  The  deponent 
verbs,  in  Latin,  require  also  an  auxiliary  to  conjugate  sev- 
eral of  their  Jeuses.  This  statement  abundantly  proves 
that  the  conjugation  of  a  verb,  in  the  learned  languages 
does  not  consist  solely  in  varying  the  form  of  the  original 


ETYMOLOGY.  103 

verb.  It  proves  that  these  languages,  like  our  own  lan- 
guage, sometimes  conjugate  with  an  auxiliary,  and  some- 
times \7ith0ut  it.  There  is,  indeed  a  difference.  What 
the  learned  languages  require  to  be  done,  in  some  in- 
stances, the  peculiar  genius  of  our  own  tongue  obliges 
us  to  do,  in  active  verbs,  principally,  and  in  passive  ones, 
universally.  In  short,  the  variation  of  the  verb,  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  is  generally  accomplished  by  prefixes,  or  termi- 
nations, added  to  the  verb  itself;  in  English,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  auxiliaries. 

The  English  tongue  is,  in  many  respects,  materially  dif- 
ferent from  the  learned  languages.  It  is,  therefore,  very 
possible  to  be  mistaken  ourselves,  and  to  mislead  and  per- 
plex others,  by  an  undistinguishing  attachment  to  the  prin- 
ciples and  arrangement  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Grammari- 
ans. Much  of  the  confusion  and  perplexity,  which  we 
meet  with  in  the  writings  of  some  English  Grammarians, 
on  the  subject  of  verbs,  moods,  and  conjugations,  has  aris- 
en from  the  misapplication  of  names.  We  are  apt 
to  think  that  the  old  names  must  always  be  attached  to 
the  identical  forms  and  things  to  which  they  were  an- 
ciently attached.  But  if  we  rectify  this  mistake,  and  pro- 
perly adjust  the  names  to  the  peculiar  forms  and  nature 
of  the  things  in  our  own  language,  we  shall  be  clear  and 
consistent  in  our  ideas;  and  consequently,  better  able  to 
represent  them  intelligibly  to  those  whom  we  wish  to  in- 
form. 

The  observations  which  we  have  made  under  this  head, 
en  the  subject  of  the  moods  in  another  place,  will  not 
apply  to  the  declension  and  cases  of  nouns,  so  as  to  require 
us  to  adopt  names  and  divisions  similar  to  those  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages :  for  we  should  then  have  more 
cases  than  there  are  prepositions  in  connexion  with  the 
article  and  noun  ;  and  after  all  it  would  be  an  useless,  as  well 
as  an  unwieldly  apparatus :  since  every  English  preposition 
points  to  and  governs  but  one  case,  namely,  the  objective ; 
which  is  also  true  with  respect  to  our  governing  verbs  and 
participles.  But  the  conjugation  of  an  English  verb  in  form, 
through  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  by  means  of  auxiliaries, 
so  far  from  being  useless  or  intricate,  is  a  beautiful  and  regu- 
lar display  of  it,  and  indispensably  necessary  to  the  language. 


104  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Some  grammarians  have  alleged,  that  on  the  same  ground 
that  the  voices,  moods,  and  tenses,  are  admitted  into  the 
English  tongue,  in  the  forms  for  which  we  have  contended, 
we  shoukl  also  admit  the  dual  number,  the  paulo  post  future 
tense,  the  middle  voice,  and  all  the  moods  and  tenses,  which 
are  to  be  found  in  Greek  and  Latin.  But  this  objection, 
though  urged  with  much  reliance  on  its  weight,  is  not  well 
founded.  If  the  arrangement  of  the  moods,  tenses,  &:c. 
which  we  have  adopted,  is  suited  to  the  idiom  of  our  tongue ; 
and  the  principle,  on  which  they  are  adopted,  is  extended 
as  far  as  use  and  convenience  require  ;  where  is  tiie  impro- 
priety, in  arresting  our  progress,  and  fixing  our  forms  at  the 
point  of  utility  ?  A  principle  may  be  warrai.tably  adopted, 
and  carried  to  a  precise,  convenient  extent,  without  subject- 
ing its  supporters  to  the  charge  of  inconsistency^  for  not 
pursuing  it  heyong  the  line  of  use  and  propriety. 

The  importance  of  giving  the  ingenuous  student  clear  and 
just  ideas  of  the  nature  of  otir  verbs,  moods  and  tenses,  will 
apologize  for  the  extent  of  the  Author's  remarks  on  these 
subjects,  both  here  and  elsewhere,  and  for  his  solicitude  to 
simplify  and  explain  them.  He  thinks  it  has  been  proved, 
that  the  idiom  of  our  tongue  demands  the  arrangement  he 
has  given  to  the  English  verb  ;  and  that,  though  the  learned 
languages,  with  respect  to  voices;  moods,  and  tenses,  are,  in 
general,  different!}-  constructed  from  the  English  tongue,  yet, 
in  some  respects,  they  are  so  similar  to  it,  as  to  warrant  the 
principle  which  he  has  adopted.  See  pages  72 — 74.  77 — 
80.      94—98.     188—190. 

Sect.  10.     0/  Irregular  Verbs. 

Irregular  Verbs  are  those  which  do  not 
form  their  imperfect  tense,  and  theii' perfect  par- 
ticiple, by  the  addition  of  c/ or  erf  to  the  verb;  as, 

Prtscnt,  Imperfect,  ^    Perfect  Part. 

I  begin,  I  began  begun. 

I  know,  1  knew,  known. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS  ARE  OP  VARIOUS  SORTS. 

1.  Such  as  have  the  present  and  imperfect  teuBes*  and 
perfect  participle,  the  same  :  as, 


ETYMOLOGY. 


105 


Present 

Cost, 

Put, 


Imperfect, 
cost, 
put, 


Perfect.  Part. 
cost* 
put. 


2.  Such  as  have  the  imperfect  tense  and  perfect  partici- 
ple, the  same  :  as, 

Present'  Imperfect,  Perfect  Part. 

Abide,  abode,  abode. 

Sell,  sold,  sold. 

3.  Such  as  have  the  imperfect  tense,  and  perfect  participle, 
different :  as, 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

Arise,  arose,  arisen. 

Blow,  blew,  blown. 

M/my  verbs  become  irregular  by  contraction;  as,  "feed, 
fed:  leave,  left:"  otliers  by  the  termination  en/  as,  "fall, 
felJ,  fallen :"  others  by  the  termination  ghi  ;  as  ,*'buy,  bought: 
teach,  taught,"  <lc. 

The  following  list  of  the  irregular  verbs  will,  it  is  presum- 
ed, be  found  both  comprehensive  and  accurate. 


Present. 

Imperfect 

Perf  orPass.Part^ 

Abide, 

abode. 

abode. 

Am, 

¥?a9, 

been. 

Arise, 

arose, 

arisen. 

Awake, 

awoke,  b. 

awaked. 

Bear,  to  bring  forth, 

bare, 

born. 

Bear,  to  carry. 

bore, 

borne. 

Beat, 

beat, 

beaten,  beat 

Begin, 

began. 

begun. 

Bend, 

bent, 

bent. 

Bereave, 

bereft,  r. 

bereft,  r. 

Beseech, 

besought, 

besought. 

Bid, 

bid,  bade. 

bidden,  bid. 

Bind, 

bound. 

bound. 

Bite, 

bit. 

bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

bled. 

bled. 

Blow, 

blew. 

blown. 

Break, 

broko. 

broken. 

Breed, 

bred. 

bred. 

Bring, 

brought, 

brought- 

106 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Present 

Imperfect. 

Perf,  or  Pass.  Part, 

Build, 

built, 

built. 

Burst, 

burst, 

burst. 

Buy, 

bought. 

bought. 

Cast, 

cast, 

cast. 

Catch, 

caught,  R. 

caught,  R. 

Chide, 

chid. 

chidden,  chid. 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

Cleave,  to  stick  ar> 
adhere,               S 

REGULAR. 

Cleave,  to 

split. 

clove  or  cleft, 

cleft,  cloven. 

Clina:, 

clung, 

clung. 

Clothe, 

clothed, 

clad,  R. 

Come, 

came, 

come. 

Cost, 

cost, 

cost. 

Crow, 

crew,  R. 

crowed. 

Creep, 

crept. 

crept 

Cut, 

cut. 

cut. 

Dare,  to  venture. 

durst. 

dared. 

Dare,  r.  to 

challenge^ 

Deal, 

dealt,  R. 

dealt,  R. 

Dig, 

dug,  R. 

dug,  R. 

Do, 

did. 

done. 

Draw, 

drew- 

drawn. 

Drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

Drink, 

drank. 

drunk. 

Dwell, 

dwelt,  R. 

dwelt,  R. 

Eat, 

eat,  or  ate, 

eaten. 

Fall, 

fell. 

fallen. 

Feed, 

fed. 

fed. 

Feel, 

felt, 

felt. 

Fight, 

fouffht, 

fought. 

Find, 

found, 

found. 

Flee, 

fled. 

fled. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flung. 

Fly, 

flew, 

flown. 

Forget, 

forgot, 

forgotten^forgot 

Forsake, 

forsoook, 

forsaken. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Get, 

got, 

got.* 

*GotUn\%\ 

learly  obsolete. 

Its  compound  forgotten 

i  js  still  in  good  use 

ETYMOLOGY. 

IG 

Present, 

Imperfect, 

Per/,  or  Pciss.  Part, 

Gild, 

gilt,  R. 

gilt,  R. 

Gird, 

girt,  R. 

girt,  R. 

Give, 

gave. 

given. 

Go, 

went. 

gone. 

Grave, 

graved, 

graven,  r. 

Grind, 

ground, 

ground. 

Grow, 

grew. 

grown. 

Have, 

had, 

had. 

Hang, 

hung,  R. 

hung,  R» 

Hear, 

heard, 

heard. 

Hew, 

hewed, 

hewn,  R. 

Hide, 

hid, 

hidden,  hid* 

Hit, 

hit, 

hit. 

Hold, 

held, 

held. 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurt. 

Keep, 

kept. 

kept. 

Knit, 

knit,  R. 

knit,  R. 

Know, 

knew, 

known. 

Lade, 

laded, 

laden. 

Lay, 

laid. 

laid. 

Lead, 

led, 

led. 

Leave, 

left, 

left. 

Lend, 

lent. 

lent. 

Let, 

let, 

let. 

Lie,  to  lie  d(mm» 

lay. 

lain. 

Load, 

loaded, 

laden,  r. 

Lose, 

lost. 

lost. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

Meet, 

met. 

met. 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mown,  R. 

Pay. 

paid, 

paid. 

Put, 

put, 

put. 

Read, 

read^ 

read. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rent. 

Rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode, 

rode,  ridden.* 

R)ug, 

rung,  rang. 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived, 

riven. 

*  Ridden  is  cearlf  obsolete. 


108 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


PresetU. 

Imperfect           Verf,  or  Pass,  Part. 

Run, 

ran, 

run,  R. 

Saw, 

sawed, 

sawn,  R. 

Say, 

said, 

said. 

See, 

saw. 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought. 

Sell, 

sold, 

sold. 

Send, 

sent. 

sent. 

Sc>t, 

set, 

set. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

Sliape, 

shaped, 

shaped, sbapen. 

Sh.ive, 

shaved. 

shaven. 

Shear, 

sheared, 

shorn. 

SlVHl, 

shed, 

shed. 

S  ine. 

shone,  r. 

shone,  r. 

Siiow, 

showed, 

shown. 

S'U)e, 

shod. 

shod. 

Simot, 

shot, 

shot. 

Shrink, 

shrunk, 

shrunk. 

Shred, 

shred. 

shred. 

Shut, 

shut. 

shut. 

Sing, 

sung,  sang. 

song. 

Sink, 

sunk,  sank, 

sunk. 

Sit, 

sat, 

s^>t. 

Slay, 

slew. 

slain. 

Sleep, 

slept. 

sl^i»t. 

SI  Hie, 

slid, 

slidJen. 

S!i«g, 

slung. 

slung. 

Slink, 

slunk, 

slunk. 

Slit, 

slit,  R. 

slil  or  slitled. 

Smite, 

smote, 

smitten. 

Sow, 

sowed, 

sown,  r. 

Speak, 

spoke, 

spoken. 

Speed, 

sped. 

sped. 

Spend, 

spent. 

spent. 

Spill, 

spilt,  R. 

spilt,  R. 

Spin, 

spun. 

spun. 

Spit, 

spit,  spat, 

spit,  spitten.^ 

Split, 

split, 

split. 

Spread, 

spread. 

spread. 

Spring, 

sprung,  sprang, 
*  Spitten  »  Dearljr  obsolete- 

sprung. 

/ 

ETYMOLOGY. 

109 

Fresent, 

Imperfect,             Per/,  or  Pass.  Part, 

Stand, 

stood. 

stood. 

Steal, 

stole. 

stolen. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

stuck. 

Sting, 

stung, 

stung. 

Stiuk, 

stunk. 

stunk. 

Stride, 

strode  or  strid, 

stridden,      [en. 

Strike, 

struck, 

struck  or  strick- 

String, 

strung. 

strung. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striven. 

Strow  or  strew. 

strowed  or  strewed  > 

'  strovvn,strowed3 
1        strewed. 

Swear, 

swore, 

sworn. 

Sweat, 

swet,  R. 

swet,  R. 

Swell, 

swelled. 

swollen,  R. 

Swim, 

swum,  swam, 

swum. 

Swing, 

sw^ung, 

swung. 

Take, 

took. 

taken. 

Teach, 

taught, 

taught 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

Tell, 

told. 

told. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

Thrive, 

throve,  r. 

thriven. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Thrust, 

thrust. 

thrust. 

Tread, 

trod, 

trodden. 

Wax, 

waxed, 

waxen,  r. 

Wear, 

wore, 

worn. 

Weave, 

wove, 

woven. 

Weep, 

wept. 

wept. 

Win, 

won. 

won. 

Wind, 

wound. 

woun<l.      [ked. 

Work, 

wrought. 

wrought  or  wor- 

Wring, 

wrung. 

wrung. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

In  the  preceding  list,  some  of  the  verhs 

will  be  found  to 

be  conjugated  regularly,  as  well   as   irregularly  ;  and  those 

which 

admit  of  the 

regular  form   are   marked  with  an  r. 

There  : 

is  a  preference  to  be  given  to  some 

!  of  these,  which 

custom 

and   judgment   must  determine. 

Those  preterites 

and  participles  which 

are  first  mentioned 

in  the  list,  seem 

no  ENGLISH  GRA31MAR. 

(o  be  the  most  eligible.  The  compiler  has  not  inserted  such 
verbs  as  are  irregular  only  in  familiar  writing  or  discourse, 
or  which  are  improperly  terminated  l)y  t,  instead  of  ed :  as, 
learnt,  spelt,  spilt,  Sen.  These  should  be  avoided  in  every 
sort  of  composition.  It  is,  iiowever,  proper  to  observe  that 
some  contractions  o^cd  into  /,  are  unexceptionable  :  and  oth- 
ers, the  only  estai)lished  forms  of  expression ;  as,  crept, 
dwelt,  guilt,  &c. :  and  lost,  felt,  slept,  &e:  These  allowa- 
ble and  necessary  contractions  must  therefore  be  carefully 
distinguished  by  the  learner,  from  those  that  are  exception- 
able. The  words  which  are  obsolete  have  also  been  omit- 
ted, that  the  learner  might  not  be  induced  to  mistake  them 
for  words  in  present  use.  Such  are  wrcathen,  drunken,  holp- 
en,  molten,  gotten,  holden,  bounden,  d:c. ;  and  swang,  rang, 
slank,  strawed,  gat,  brake,  tare,  ware,  6ic. 

Sect.  II.     Of  Defective  Verbs  :  and  of  the  different  ways  in 
which  verbs  arc  conjugated. 

Defective  Verbs  are  those  vvliicli  are  used 
only  in  some  of  tlieir  moods  and  tenses. 

The  principal  of  them  are  these, 

Presenl.  Imperfect.  Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Tan,  could,                          

May,  might,                        

Shall,  should,                        

Will,  -would,                        

Must,  must,                         

Vnshty  ought,                          

That  the  verli  nmst  and  ought  have  both  a  present  and 
past  signification,  a|)pears  from  the  following  sententes  :  *'I 
must  own  that  I  am  to  blanie  ;''  ''He  must  have  been  mis- 
taken;" "Speaking  things  which  they  ought  not  j*'  ''Thtse 
ought  ye  to  have  done." 

in  most  languages  there  are  some  verbs  which  are  defect- 
ive with  respect  to  persons.  These  are  denominated  Im- 
personal verbs.  They  are  used  only  in  the  third  person, 
because  they  refer  to  a  subject  peculiarly  appropriated  to 
that  person  ;  as,  "It  rains,  it  snows,  it  bails,  it  lightens,  it 


ETYMOLOGY.  '  111 

thunders."  But  as  the  word  impersonal  imniies  a  total  ab- 
sence of  persons,  it  is  improperly  applied  to  those  verbs 
which  have  a  person  :  and  hesce  it  is  nianifert,  that  there  is 
no  such  thing  in  English,  nor  indeed,  in  any  language,  as  a 
sort  of  verbs  really  impersonal. 

The  whole  number  of  verbs  in  the  English  language,  reg- 
ular, and  irregular,  simple  and  compounded,  taken  together, 
is  about  4300.  The  number  of  irregular  verbs,  the  defect- 
ive included,  is  about  lllJ^ 

Some  Grammarians  have  thought  that  the  English  verbs, 
as  well  as  those  of  the  Greek.  Latin,  French,  and  other  lan- 
guages might  be  classed  into  Severn  I  conjugations  ;  and  that 
the  three  diiferent  terminations  of  the  participle  might  be 
the  distinguishing  chara'^teiistics.  They  have  accordingly 
proposed  three  conjwgations  :  namely,  the  first  to  consist  of 
verbs,  the  participles  of  .\  inch  end  in  ed^  or  its  contraction 
i ;  the  stcond  of  those  ending  in  glii  ;  and  the  third  of  those 
in  en.  But  as  the  verbs  of  tlse  first  conjugation,  would  so 
greatly  exceed  in  num^^er  those  of  both  the  others,  as  may 
be  seen  *?y  the  preceding  account  of  them;  and  as  those  of 
the  third  conjugation  are  so  various  in  their  form,  and  inca- 
pable of  being  reduced  to  one  plain  rule :  it  stems  better  in 
practice,  as  Or.  Lowth  justly  oVisrrves,  to  consider  the  first 
in  f.'/as  the  only  regular  form,  and  the  other  as  deviations 
from  it ;  after  the  example  of  the  Saxon  and  German  Gram- 
marians. 

Before  we  close  the  account  of  the  verbs,  it  may  afford 
instrdctioii  to  the  learners,  to  be  informed,  more  particular- 
ly than  they  have  been,  that  different  nations  have  made  use 
of  diiferrat  contrivances  for  maUing  the  tenses  and  moods 
of  their  verbs.  The  Greeks  and  Latins  distinguish  them, 
as  well  as  the  cases  of  theu  nouns,  a(»jf  ctives,  and  partici- 
ples, by  varying;  tl'-  termination,  or  otherwise  changing  the 
form  of  the  won!  ...taining,  however,  those  radical  letters 
which  prove  chri  iafi^ct^ou  to  be  of  the  same  kindred  with 
its  root,  -i'he  modern  tongues,  particularly  the  English,  a- 
bound  in  auxiliary  words,  which  vary  the  meaning  of  the 
nouii.  or  the  verb,  without  requiring  any  considerable  varie- 
ties of  infection.     Thus,  I  do  love,  I  did  love,  I  have  loved, 

*Thp  whole  nuraber  of  words  in  the  Eiiglish  language,  is  about  thiify-ilve  thousand. 


112  EXGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

J  hadlovcd^  1  shall  love,  have  the  same  import  -with  aino,  aaia- 
ham,  amaviy  amavcram,  amaho,  1 1  is  obvious  that  a  language, 
like  the  Greek  and  Latin,  which  can  thus  comprehend  iu 
one  word,  the  meanin<^  of  two  or  three  words,  must  have 
some  advantasies  over  those  which  are  not  so  comprehen- 
sive. Perhaps,  indeed,  it  may  not  he  more  pers[)icuous  ; 
but,  in  the  arrangement  of  words,  and  consequent  I}'  in  har- 
mony and  energy,  as  well  as  in  coucidentss,  it  may  be  much 
more  elegaiit. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

OF    ADVERBS. 

An  Adverb  is  a  part  of  speech  joined  to  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  and  sometimes  to  another 
adverb,  to  express  some  quality  orcircumstance 
respectinii^it :  as,  "fie  reads  i^e//;"  "A  truly  good 
man  ;"  "He  writes  very  correctly^'*  ^ 

Some  adverbs  are  compared  thus;  "Soon, 
sooner,  soonest ;''  "Often,  oftener,  oftenest." 
Those  endini?  in  /y,  are  compared  by  more  and 
most;  as,  "Wisely,  more  wisely, most  wisely." 

A^iverbsseem  originally  to  Imve  been  contrived  to  express 
compendiously  m  one  word,  what  must  otherwise  have  re- 
quired two  or  more  :  as,  *'He  acted  wisely,"  for,  he  acted 
with  v/isdom ;  '^prudently,"  for,  with  prudence:  "He  did  it 
here,"  for,  he  did  it  io  this  phice ;  "exceedmgly,"  for,  to  a 
great  deirre ;  "often  and  seldom,"  for  many,  and  for  few 
times  ;  **very,"  for,  in  an  eminent  degree,  &c. 

There  are  many  words  in  tlie  En'xiish  hinguase  that  are 
sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  and  sometimes  as  adverbs  :  as, 
**More  men  than  women  >sero  lliere ;"  or,  '*!  am  more  dili- 
gent than  he."  In  tht  former  sentence  ?w^r^is  evidently  an 
adjective,  and  in  the  latter,  an  adverb  There  are  olhf  rs 
that  art'  sometimes  used  as  substantives,  and  sometimes  as 
adverbs  :  as,  ''To-days's  lesson  is  longer  than  yesterday's ;" 


ETYMOLOGY.  113 

liere,  ic-day  and  yesterday  are  substantives,  because  they  are 
Avords  that  make  sense  of  themselves,  and  admit  besides  oi' 
a  genitive  Chse  :  but  in  the  phrase,  ^'lle  came  home  yester- 
day, and  sets  out  again  to-day,"  i\\ey  are  adverbs  of  time ; 
because  they  answer  to  the  question  when.  The  adverb 
much  is  used  as  all  three:  as,  "Where  much  is  given,  much 
is  required  ;"  "Much  money  has  been  expended  :"  "It  is 
much  better  to  go  than  to  stay."  In  the  first  of  these  sch- 
tences,  much  is  a  substantive  ;  in  the  second,  it  is  an  adjec- 
tive ;  and  in  the  third,  an  adverb.  In  short,  nothing  but  the 
sense  can  determine  what  they  are. 

Adverbs,  though  very  numerous,  may  be  reduced  to  cer- 
tain classes,  the  chief  of  which  are  those  of  Number,  Order, 
Place,  Time,  Quantity,  Manner  or  Quality,  Doubt,  Affirma- 
tion, Negation,  Interrogation  and  Comparison, 

1.  Of  mimhcr :  as,  "Once,  twice,  thrice,"  &c. 

2.  Of  order :  as,  "First,  secondly,  thirdly,  fourthly,  fitthly, 
lastly,  finally,"  <fec. 

3.  Of  'place  :  as,  "Here,  there,  where,  elsewhere,  any- 
where, somewhere, nowhere,  herein,  whither,  hither,  thither, 
upward,  downward,  f>rvvard,  backward,  whence,  hence, 
thence,  whithersoever/'  &c. 

4.  Of  time. 

Of  time  present :  as,  "Now;,  to-dry,"  &c. 

Of  time  pa^t :  as,  "Already,  before,  lately,  yesterday, 
heretofore,  hitherto,  long  since,  long  ago,"  &c. 

Of  time  to  come  :  as,  "To-morrow,  not  yet,  hereafter, 
henceforth,  henceforward,  by  and  by,  instantly j  presently, 
immediately,  straightways,"  &c. 

0{  time  indefiniie :  as,  "Oft,  often,  oft-times,  oftentimes, 
sometimes,  soon,  seldom,  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly, 
always,  when,  then,  ever,  never,  again,"  d:c. 

b.  Of  quality:  as,  "Mucb,  little,  sufficiently,  how  much, 
how  great,  enough,  abundantly,"  &c. 

6.  Of  manner  or  quality :  as,  "Wisely,  foolishly,  justly, 
unjustly,  quickly,  slowly,"  &c.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  the 
most  numerous  kind  ;  and  they  are  generally  formed  by  ad- 
ding the  termination  ly  to  an  adjective  or  participle,  or  chan- 
ging le  into  ly :  as,  "Bad,  badly  ;  cheerful,  cheerfoliy ;  able, 
ably  ;  admirable,  admirably." 
k2 


114  EiVGLISn  GRAMMAR. 

7.  Of  (louht :  as,  "Perhaps,  peradrenture,  possibly,  per- 
chance." 

8.  Of  cfftnnaiion  :  as,  "Yerily,  truly,  undoubtedly,  doubt- 
less, certainly,  yea,  yes,  surely,  indeed,  realljV'&c. 

9.  Of  negation:  as,  "Nay,  no,  not,  by  no  means,  not  at 
all,  in  no  wise,"  Szc, 

10.  0(  interrogation:  as,  "Kow,  \Nliy,  wherefore,  wheth- 
er," &c. 

11.  0^  comparison  :  as,  "More,  most,  better,  best,  Avorse, 
worst,  less,  leaf',  very,  almost,  little,  alike,"  &c. 

Besides  the  adverbs  already  mentioned,  there  are  many 
which  are  formed  hy  a  combination  of  several  of  the  prepo- 
posilions  with  the  adverbs  of  place  here,  there,  and  where: 
as,  "Hereof,  thereof,  whereof;  hereto,  thereto,  whereto: 
hereby,  thereby,  whereby  ;  herewith,  therewith  where- 
with :  herein,  therein,  wherein ;  therefore,  (i.  e.  there  for,) 
wherefore,  (i.  e.  wliere-for,)  hereupon  or  hereon,  thereup- 
on or  therton,  whereupon  or  whereon,"  &c.  Except  there- 
fore,  these  are  seldom  used. 

In  some  inslan'^es  the  preposition  suffers  no  change,  but 
becomes  an  adverb  merely  by  its  application  :  as  when  we 
?ay,  "he  rides  ahcni ;"  "he  was  near  falling ;"  "but  do  not 
/Vfrlay  tbe  blame  on  me." 

There  are  also  some  adverbs,  which  are  composed  of 
I'njns  and  the  article  a;  as,  "Aside,  alhirst,  afoot,  ahead, 
fcsleep,  aboard,  ashore,  abed,  aground,  afloat,"  &c. 

The  words  nlxcn  and  ivherc,  and  ail  others  of  the  same 
nature,  such  as,  whcnee,  whither,  ivhenever,  wherever^  &c. 
may  be  properly  called  adverbial  conjunctions,  because  they 
participate  the  nature  both  of  adverbs  and  conjunctions  : 
of  conjunctions  as  they  conjoin  sentences  ;  of  adverbs, 
as  they  denote  the  attributes  either  of  time,  or  of 
place. 

It  may  he  particularly  observed  with  respect  to  the  word 
therefore,  that  it  is  an  adverb,  when,  without  joining  sen- 
tences, it  only  gives  the  sense  of,  for  that  reason.  When 
it  gives  that  sense,  and  also  connects,  it  is  a  conjunction: 
as,  "He  is  good,  therefore  he  is  happy."  The  same  obser- 
vation may  be  extended  to  the  words  consequently,  accord- 
ingly, and  the  like.  When  these  are  subjoined  to  and,  or 
joioed  to  if,  since,  &c.  they  are    adverbs,  the    connexion 


ETYMOLOGY. 


115 


being  made  without  their  help  :  when  they  appear  single, 
and  unsupported  by  any  other  connective,  they  may  be  call- 
ed conjunctions. 

The  inquisitive  scholar  may  naturally  ask.  what  necessi- 
ty there  is  for  adverbs  oftime^  when  verbs  are  provided  with 
tenses  to  show  that  circumstance.  The  answer  is,  though 
tenses  may  be  sufficient  to  denote  the  greater  distinctions  of 
time,  yet,  to  denote  them  all  by  the  tenses  would  be  a  per- 
plexity without  end.  What  a  variety  of  forms  must  be  giv- 
en to  the  verb,  to  denote  yesterday,  to-day,  to-morrow,  for- 
merly^ lately,  just  now,  now,  immediately,  presently,  soon, 
hereafter,  &c.  It  was  this  consideration  that  made  the  ad- 
verbs of  time  necessary,  over  and  above  the  tenses. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with 
one  another,  and  to  show  the  relation  between 
them.  They  are,  for  the  most  part,  put  before 
nouns  and  pronouns  :  as,  "He  went /rom  Lon- 
don to  York ;"  ^'She  is  above  disguise  ;"  "They 
aie  instructed  by  him." 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  prepositions : 


Of 

into 

above 

at 

off 

to 

within 

below 

near 

onorupon 

for 

without 

between 

up 

among 

^y 

over 

beneath 

down 

after 

with 

under 

from 

before 

about 

in 

through 

beyond 

behind 

against 

Verbs  are  often  compounded  of  a  verb  and  a  preposi- 
tion ;  as,  to  uphold,  to  invest,  to  overlook  :  and  this  com- 
position sometimes  gives  a  new  sense  to  th^  verb;  as,  to 
understand,  to  withdraw,  to  forgive.  But  in  English,  the 
preposition  is  more  frequently  placed  after  the  verb,  and 
separately  from  it,  like  an  adverb,  in  which  situation  it  is 


116  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

not  less  apt  to  affect  the  sense  of  it,  anil  to  give  it  a  new 
meaning;  and  may  still  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
Terb,  and  as  a  part  of  it.  As,  to  cast,  is  to  throw  ;  but  to 
cast  up,  or  to  compute,  an  account  is  quite  a  diiTereiit  tiling  : 
thus,  to  fall  on,  to  bear  out,  to  give  over,  See.  So  that  the 
meaning  of  the  verb,  and  the  propriety  of  the  phrase,  de- 
pend on  the  preposition  subjoined. 

]n  th(!  composition  of  many  words,  there  are  certain  syl- 
lables employed,  which  Grammarians  have  called  insepara- 
rable  prepositions:  as,  i^,  con,  nns,  &c.  in  bedeck,  conjoin, 
mistake  :  but  as  they  are  not  words  of  any  kind,  they  can- 
not properly  be  called  a  species  of  preposition. 

One  great  use  of  prepositions,  in  English  is,  to  express 
those  relations,  which,  in  some  languages,  are  chiefly  mark- 
ed by  cases,  or  the  different  endings  of  uounr.  See  paa;e  50 
The  necessity  and  use  of  them  will  appear  from  the  follow- 
ing examples.  If  we  say,  ''he  writes  a  i)en,"  "They  ran 
the  river,"  "the  tower  fell  the  Greeks,"  "Lambeth  is  West- 
minster-abbey," there  is  observable  in  each  of  these  exj)res- 
sions,  either  a  total  want  of  connexion,  or  such  a  connexion 
as  pro:luces  falsehood  or  nonsense :  and  it  is  evident,  that, 
before  they  can  be  turned  into  sense,  the  vacancy  must  bo 
filled  up  by  some  connecting  word  :  as  thus  :  "He  w  rites  with 
a  pen;"  'they  ran  towards  the  river;"  "the  tower  foil  upon 
the  Greeks;"  "Lamt)eth  is  over  as^ainst  Westminster-abbey." 
We  see  by  these  instances,  how  preposition's  may  be  ne- 
cessary to  connect  those  words,  which  in  their  signiticatioB 
are  not  naturally  connected. 

Prepositions,  in  their  original  and  literal  acceptation,  seem 
to  have  denoted  relations  of  place  ;  but  they  are  now  used 
figuratively  to  express  other  relations.  For  example,  as  they 
who  are  above  have  in  several  respects  the  advantage  of 
such  as  are  beloit.  Prepositions  expressing  high  and  low 
places  are  used  for  superiority  and  inferiority  in  general  ;  as, 
"he  is  above  disguise;"  "we  serve  tmder  a  good  master  ;"  "he 
rules  ovfr  a  willing  people,"  "we  should  do  nothing  beneath 
our  character." 

The  importance  of  the  prepositions  will  be  further  per- 
ceived by  the  explanation  of  a  few  of  them. 

Of  denotes  possession  or  belonging,  an  effect  or  conse- 
quence,  and   other    relations   connected   with  these :    as. 


ETYMOLOGY.  117 

^*The  house  of  my  friend  ;"  that  is,  "the  house  belonging  to 
my  friend  ;"  "He  died  of  a  fever;"  that  is,  "in  consequence, 
of  a  fever." 

To  OP  unto,  is  opposed  to  from  ;  as,  "He  rode  from  Salis- 
bury to  Winchester." 

For  indicates  the  cause  or  motive  of  any  action  or  circum- 
stance, &c. ;  as,  "He  loves  her  for  (that  is,  on  account  of) 
her  amiable  qualities." 

By  is  generally  used  with  reference  to  the  cause,  agent, 
means,  &c.  ;  as,  "He  was  killed  hy  a  fall ;  that  is,  "a  fall 
was  the  cause  of  his  being  killed ;"  "This  house  was  hxxWihy 
him  ;"  that  is,  "he  was  the  builder  of  it." 

With  denotes  the  act  of  accompanying,  uniting,  &c. ;  as, 
•^We  will  go  mf^you:"  "They  are  on  good  terms  ivith  each 
other." — With  aiso  alludes  to  the  instrument  or  means  :  as, 
"He  was  cut  with  a  knife." 

hi  relates  to  time,  place,  the  state  or  manner  of  being  or 
acting,  Sec:  as,  "He  was  born  m  (that  is,  during)  the  year 
1720;"  "He  dwells  in  the  city;"  "She  lives  in  afflu- 
ence." 

Into  is  used  after  verbs  that  imply  motion  of  any  kind; 
as,  "He  retired  into  the  country;"  "Copper  is  converted  into 
brass." 

Within  relates  to  something  comprehended  in  any  place 
or  time;  as,  "They  are  ndthiaXhe  house;"  "He  began  and 
finished  his  work  within  the  limited  time." 

The  signification  oi  without  is  opposite  to  that  of  within; 
as,  "She  stands  without  the  gate  :"  But  it  is  more  frequently 
opposed  to  with  ;  as,  "You  may  go  without  me." 

The  import  and  force  of  the  remaining  prepositions  will 
be  readily  understood  without  a  particular  detail  of  them. 
We  shal!,  therefore,  conclude  this  head  with  observing,  that 
there  is  a  peculiar  propriety  in  distinguishing  the  use  of 
the  prepositions  hy^WKiwiih;  which  is  observable  in  sen- 
tences like  the  following :  "He  walks  with  a  staff  hy  moon- 
light ;"  "He  was  taken  hy  stratagem,  and  killed  with  a 
sword."  Put  the  one  preposition  for  the  other,  and  say, 
"he  walks  hy  a  staff  ?h^/i  moonlight  ;"  "he  was  taken  ivith 
stratagem,  and  killed  by  a  sword ;  and  it  will  appear,  that 
they  ditfer  in  signification  more  than  one,  at  first  view, 
would  be  apt  to  imagine. 


118  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Some  of  the  prepositions  have  the  appearance  and  eiTect 
of  conjunctions  ;  as,  "J/if/T  their  prisons  were  thrown  open," 
&c.  ^'Before  I  die;"  "They  made  haste  to  be  prepared 
ai(ainst  their  friends  arrived;"  but  if  the  noun  time,  which  is 
understood, be  added,  they  will  lose  their  conjunctive  form; 
as,  "After  [the  time  when]  their  prisons,"  <fec. 

The  preposittoriSrt/'/n',  bffore,  above,  beneath,  and  several 
others,  sometimes  appear  to  be  adverl-s,  and  may  be  so  con- 
sidered :  as,  *'They  had  their  reward  soon  after  T  "He  died 
not  long  before  ;"  ^'He  dwells  above  i""  but  if  the  nouns  time 
and  place  be  added  they  will  lose  their  adverbial  form ;  as, 
*'He  died  not  long  before  that  time,'''  &c. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OF     CONJUNCTIONS. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  part  of  speech  that  is 
chiefly  used  to  connect  sentences;  so  as,  out  of 
two  or  more  sentences,  to  nnake  but  one.  It 
sometimes  connects  only  words. 

Conjunctions  are  principally  divided  intolwo 
sorts,  the  copulative  and  the  disjunctive. 

The  conjunction  Copulative  serves  to  con- 
nect or  to  continue  a  sentence,  by  expressing 
an  addition,  a  supposition,  a  cause,  &c.  :as, 
"He  a7i(l\us  brother  reside  in  London  ;*'  "I  will 
fro  if  he  will  accompany  me;"  "You  are  happy, 
became  you  are  o;ood." 

The  Conjunction  Disjunctive  serves,  not  on- 
ly to  connect  and  continue  the  sentence,  but 
also  to  express  opposition  of  meaning  in  differ- 
ent degrees:  ?ihy'' Though  he  was  frequently  re- 
proved, yet  he  did  not  reform  :"  "They  came 
with  her,  but  went  away  without  hen 


ETYMOLOGY.  119 

The  following:  is  a  list  of  the  principal  Conjunctions. 

The  Copulative,  And,  if,  that,  both,  then,  ijince,  for,  be- 
cause, therefore,  wherefore. 

The  Disjunctive.  But,  or,  nor,  as,  then,  lest,  though,  un- 
less, either,  neither,  yet,  notwithsttnding. 

The  same  word  is  occasionally  used  both  as  a  conjunc- 
tion and  as  an  adverb ;  and  sometimes  as  a  preposition.  "I 
rest  then  upon  this  argument;"  then  is  here  a  conjunction  .* 
in  the  following  phrase,  it  is  an  adverb ;  "He  arrived  then, 
and  not  before."  "I  submitted /or  it  was  in  vain  to  resist;" 
in  this  sentence  for  is  a  conjunction  ;  in  the  next  it  is  a  pre- 
position :  "He  contended  for  victory  only."  In  the  first  of 
the  following  sentences,  since  is  a  conjunction  ;  in  the  sec- 
ond it  is  a  preposition;  and  in  the  third  an  adverb  :  ''Since 
we  must  part,  let  us  doit  peaceabfy  :"  "1  have  not  seen  him 
aince  that  time :"  "Our  friendship  commenced  long  since. 

Relative  pronouns,  as  well  as  conjunctions,  serve  to  con- 
nect sentences ;  as,  "Blessed  is  the  man  who  feareth  the 
Lord,  and  keepeth  his  commandments." 

A  relative  pronoun  possesses  the  force  both  of  a  pronoun 
and  a  connective.  Nay,  the  union  by  relatives  is  rather 
closer,  than  that  by  mere  conjunctions.  The  latter  may 
form  two  or  more  sentences  into  one:  but  by  the  former, 
several  sentences  may  incorporate  in  one  and  the  same 
clause  of  a  sentence.  Thus,  "thou  seest  a  man,  and  he  is 
called  Peter,"  is  a  sentence  consisi  mg  of  two  distinct  clauses, 
united  by  the  copulative  and;  i)ut,  "the  man  whom  thou  seest 
is  called  Peter,"  is  a  sentence  of  one  clause  and  not  less 
comprehensive  than  the  other. 

Conjunctions  very  often  unite  sentences,  when  they  ap- 
pear to  unite  o.'ily  words  ;  as  in  the  folio vving  Instances  t 
"Duty  «??</  interest  forbid  vicious  indulgences :"  "Wisdom 
or  folly  governs  us."  Each  of  these  forms  of  expression 
contains  two  sentences,  namely  :  *'Uu»y  forUids  vicious  in- 
dulgences: intensi  forbids  vici^^is  ii-dulgences;"  "Wisdom 
govt>rr:s  us,  or  folly  governs  us." 

Though  the  cx)ijjuncdoa  is  f^.ommonly  used  to  connect 
sentences  together,  yei,  o  i  ^om.  occasions,  it  merely  con- 
nects words,  not  senJencis  :  as,  "Tie  king  and  queen  are 
an  amiable  pa^r;"  vvhere  the  c^fiarmrUion  <vjnnot  r*-fer  to 
each ;  it  beuig  absurd  to  say,  that  the  king  or  the  qucm  only 


120  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

is  an  amiable  pair.  So  in  the  instances,  "two  and  two  are 
four;  the  fifth  and  sixth  volumes  will  complete  the  set  of 
books."  Preposirious  also,  as  before  observed,  connect 
words;  but  they  do  it  to  show  the  relation  which  the  coa- 
nected  w^ords  have  to  each  other ;  conjunctions,  when 
they  unite  words  only,  are  designed  to  show  the  relations, 
which  those  words,  so  united,  have  to  other  parts  of  the 
sentence. 

As  there  are  many  conjunctions  and  connective  phrases 
appropriated  to  the  coupling  ol  sentences,  that  are  never 
employed  in  joining  the  members  of  a  sentence;  so  there 
are  several  conjunctions  appropriated  to  the  latter  use, 
which  are  never  employed  in  the  former;  and  some  that  are 
equally  adapted  to  both  those  purposes;  as,  again ^  further, 
besides^  &c.  of  the  first  hind ;  than,  lest,  unhss,  that,  so, 
that,  &c.  of  the  second ;  and,  but,  and,  for,  therefore,  &c.  of 
the  last. 

We  shall  close  this  chapter  with  a  few  observations  on 
the  peculiar  use  and  advantage  of  the  conjunctions  :  a  sub- 
ject which  will,  doubtless,  give  pleasure  to  the  ingenious 
gludent.  and  expand  his  views  of  the  importance  of  his  gram- 
matical studies. 

Relatives  are  not  so  useful  in  languages,  as  conjunc- 
tions. The  former  make  speech  more  concise;  the  latter 
make  it  more  explicit.  Relatives  comprehend  the  meaning 
of  a  pronoun  and  conjunction  copulative :  coi\]unci\ons, 
"while  they  couple  sentences,  may  also  express  opposi- 
tion, inference,  and  many  other  relations  and  dependen- 
cies. 

Till  men  begin  to  think  in  a  train,  and  to  carry  their  rea- 
soninji^s  to  a  comsiderable  length,  it  is  not  probable  that  they 
would  make  much  use  of  conjunctions,  or  of  any  other  con- 
nectives. Ignorant  |)eople  and  children,  generally  speak  in 
short  and  separate  sentences.  The  same  thing  is  irue  of 
barbarous  nations :  and  hence  uncultivated  languages  are 
not  well  supplied  with  connecting  particles.  The  Greeks 
were  the  greatest  reasoners  that  ever  appeared  in  the  world  ; 
and  their  tauii^ua^e,  accoidingly  al)Ounds  more  than  any  other 
in  connectives. 

Conjunctions  are  not  equally  necessary  in  all  sorts  of 


ETYMOLOGY.  121 

wrirmg.  In  poelry,  where  great  conciseness  of  phrase  is^ 
required,  and  every  appearance  of  formality  avoided,  many 
of  them  vvouk\  have  a  bad  effect.  In  passionate  language 
too,  is  may  be  proper  to  omit  them :  because  it  is  the  na- 
ture of  violent  passion,  to  speak  rather  in  disjointed  sen- 
tences, than  in  the  A\ay  of  inferenceiand  argument.  Books 
of  aphorisms,  like  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  have  few  con- 
nectives; because  they  instruct,  not  by  reasoning,  but  in 
detached  observations.  And  narr  vtive  will  soraeTmes 
appear  very  graceful,  when  the  circumstances  are  phiinly 
told,  with  scarcely  any  other  conjunction  than  the  simple 
copulative  and:  which  is  frequently  the  case  in  the  histori- 
cal parts  of  Hcripture. — When  narration  is  full  of  images 
or  events,  the  omission  of  connectives  may,  by  cro\\dit«g 
the  principal  words  upon  one  another,  give  a  sort  of  picture 
of  hurry  and  tumult,  and  so  heighten  the  vivacity  of  de- 
scription. But  when  facts  are  to  be  traced  dow  n  through 
their  consequences,  or  uj) wards  to  their  causes ;  when 
the  complicated  designs  of  mank&d  are  to  be  laid  open  or 
conjectures  offered  concerning  them ;  w  hen  the  historian 
argues  either  for  the  elucidation  of  truth,  or  in  order  to 
state  the  picas  and  principles  of  contending  parties  ;  there 
will  be  occasion  for  every  species  of  connectives,  as  much 
as  in  philosophy  itself.  In  fact,  it  is  in  argument,  investi- 
gation and  science,  that  this  part  of  speech  is  peculiarly  and 
indispensably  necessary. 

CHAPTER  X, 

OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between 
the  parts  of  a  sentence,  to  express  the  passions 
or  emotions  of  the  speaker  :  as,  "Oh !  I  have 
alienated  my  friend  ;  alas  !  I  fear  for  life;"  "O 
virtue!  how  amiable  thou  art !" 

The   English  Interjections,  as  well  as  those  of  other  lan- 
guages, are  comprised  within  a  small  compass.     Th^y  are 
of  different  sorts,  according  to  the  different  passions  which 
L 


122  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

they  serve  to  express.  Those  which  intimate  earnestness 
or  grief,  are  0/  oh!  ah!  alas!  Such  as  are  expressive  of 
contenapt,  are  pish!  tush!  of  wonder,  heigh!  really! 
strange!  of  calling  hem!  ho!  soho !  of  aversion  or  dis- 
gU9Ufoh!  fie!  away!  of  a  call  of  the  aiiention,  lo !  behold ! 
hark!  of  requesting  silence, /iw6/i/ A?'5f  /  of  salutation,  fvel 
come!  hail!  all  hail!  Besides  these,  several  others,  freqient 
in  the  mouths  of  the  multitude,  might  be  enumerated]^;  but, 
in  a  grammar  of  a  cultivated  tongue,  it  is  unnecessary  to 
expatiate  on  such  expressions  of  passions,  as  are  scarcely 
worthy  of  being  ranked  among  the  branches  of  artiticial 
language. 


CHAPTER  XL 

OF  DERIVATION. 

Sect.  1.     Of  the  various-  ways  in  which  words  are  derived 
from  one  another. 

Having  treated  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  and  their 
various  modifications,  which  in  the  first  part  of  Etymology, 
it  is  now  proper  to  explain  the  metho<ls  by  which  one  word 
is  derived  from  ano  Mer 

Words  are  derived  from  one  another  in  various  ways  : 
viz, 

1.  Substantives  are  derived  from  verbs. 

2.  Verbs  are  derived  from  substantives,  adjectives,  and 
sometimes  from  adverbs. 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  substantives. 

4.  Substantives  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

5.  Adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

1.  Substantives  are  derived  from  verbs  :  asjfrom  "to  love," 
comes  *Mover;"  from  to  visit,  visiter ;"  from/Ho  survive,  sur- 
vivor," <lc. 

In  the  following  instances,  and  in  many  others,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  determine  whether  the  verb  was  deduced  from  the 
noun,  or  the  n#un  from  the  verb,  viz.  "Love,  to  love;  hate, 
to  hate;  fear,  to  fear;  sleep,  to  sleep;  walk,  to  walk;  ride, 
to  ride ;  act,  to  act,"  &c. 

2.  Verbs  are  derived  from  substantives,  adjectives,  and 
sDmetimes    from    adverbs:  as,  from  the   substantive  sali^ 


ETYMOLOGY.  123 

comes  "to  salt ;"  from  the  adjective  yyar???,  "to  warm  ;"  and 
from  the  adverb  forward,  '*to  forward."  Sometimes  they 
are  formed  by  lengthening  the  vowel,  or  softening  the  con- 
sonant :  as,  from  '*gras8,  to  graze  :"  sometimes  by  adding  m; 
especially  to  adjectives ;  as,  from  "lengths  to  lengthen  ;  short, 
to  shorten." 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  substantives,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  ;  Adjectives  denoting  plenty  are  derived  from 
substantives  by  adding  j/ :  as,  from  "Health,  healthy;  wealth, 
^vealthy;  might,  mighty;"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  the  matter  out  of  which  any  thing  is 
made,  are  derived  from  substantives  by  adding  m  ;  as,  from 
"Oak,  oaken  ;  wood,  wooden ;  wool,  woollen,''  &:c. 

Adjectives  denoting  abundance  are  derived  from  sub- 
stantives, by  adding /<i/.'  as,  from  "Joy,joyful;  sin,  sinful; 
fruit,  fruitful,"  &c. 

Adjective  denoting  plenty,  but  with  some  kind  of  diminu- 
tion are  derived  from  substantives,  by  adding  somt  :  as, 
from  "Light,  lightsome  ;  trouble,  troublesome;  toil,  toil- 
some," <1'C. 

Adjectives  denoting  want  are  derived  from  substantives, 
by  adding  less:  as,  from  "V/o^'th,  worthless  ;"(rom  "care, 
careless :  joy,  joyless,  8cc. 

Adjectivesdenoting  likeness  are  derived  from  substantives, 
by  adding  Z;y :  as,  from  "Man,  manly  ;  earth,  earthly  ;  court, 
conrtly,"<fec. 

Some  adjectives  are  derived  from  other  adjectives,  or 
from  substantives  by  adding  2*6/1  to  them  ;  which  termina- 
tion, when  added  to  adjectives,  imports,  diminution,  or  les- 
sening the  quality  :  as,  "White,  whitish  ;"  i.  e.  somewhat 
white.  When  added  to  substantives,  it  signities  similitude 
or  tendency  to  a  character  :  as,  "Child,  childish  ;  thief, 
thievish." 

Some  adjectives  are  fovmed  from  substantives  or  verbs,  by 
adding  the  termination  n6/e' ;  and  those  adjectives  siguify, 
capacity  :  as,  "Answer, answerable;  to  change,  changeable." 

4.  Substantives  are  derived  from  abjeciives,  sometimes 
by  adding  the  termination  n6?5.9 :  as,  "White,  whiteness; 
swift,  swiftness  :"  sometimes  by  adding  th  or tj  and  making  a 
small  change  in  some  of  the  letters;  as,  "Long,  length;  high, 


124  ENGLISH  GRAM3IAR. 

5.  Adverbs  of  quality,  are  derived  from  adjectives,  by  ad- 
ding/!/, or  changing  Ic  into  ly  ;  and  denote  the  same  quality 
as  the  adjectives  from  which  they  are  derived  :  as,  from 
*'ba8e,"  comes  "basely;"  from  "slow,  slowly  ;"  from  "able, 
ably." 

There  are  so  many  other  ways  of  deriving  words  from  one 
another,  that  it  would  be  extremely  difficult,  and  nearly  im- 
possible to  enumerate  them.  The  primitive  words  of  any 
language  are  very  few ;  the  derivatives  form  much  the  great- 
er number.      A  few  more  instances  only  can  be  given  here. 

Somesn'istantives  are  derived  from  otlier  substantives,  by 
adding  the  terminations  hood  or  head,  ship,  en/,  wick,  rick, 
dom,  ian,  menl,  and  ao-f. 

Substantives  ending  in  hood  or  head^  are  such  as  signify 
character  or  qualities  ;  as,  ^'Manhooil,  kinghthood,  falseliood, 
&c. 

Substantives  ending  in  ship,  are  those  that  signify  office, 
employment,  state  or  condition  :  "Lordship,  stewardship, 
partnershij),"  &c.  Some  substantives  in  ship,  are  derived 
from  adjectives  :  as,  "Hard,  hardship."  <S:c. 

Suhstantives  that  end  in  cry,  signify  action  or  habit  :  as. 
"Slavery,  foolery,  prudery,"  <^x.  Some  substantives  of  this 
sort  come  from  adjectives:  as,  "Brave,  bravery," A:c. 

Substantives  cndina;  in  rvick,  rick,  and  dom,  denote  do- 
mi  uo!i,juri9iliction  or  condition  :  as,  "Bailiwick,  bishoprickv 
kin  r  lorn,  dukedom,  freedom,"  Sec. 

Su  slantives  wbic!i  end  in  ian^  are  those  that  signify  pro- 
fession :  as,  "Physician,  nrisician,"  Szc.  Those  that  end  in 
nicnt  and  age,  come  generally  from  the  French,  and  com- 
monly signify  the  act  or  habit :  as,  "Commandment,  usage." 

^ome  Substantives  ending  in  ard,  are  derived  from  verbsor 
adjectives  and  denote  character  or  habit :  as,  *'l)runk, 
drunk  ird;  dote,  dotard." 

Some  sui)3tantives  have  the  form  of  diminutives;  but  these 
are  not  m^ny.  They  are  formed  by  adding  tlie  terminations, 
kin,  ling, in^,  ock,  el,  and  the  like:  as,  "Limb,  lambkin; 
goose,  goslin  ;  duck,  duckling  ;  hill,  hi' lock;  cock,  cc»^ker- 
el,"  <fec. 

That  part  of  derivation  which  consists  in  tracing  En- 
lisb  words  to  the  Saxoo,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  other 
languages,  must  be  omitted,  as  the  English  scholar  U  not 


ETYMOLOGY.  12^ 

fiirpposed  to  be  acquainted  with  these  languages.  The  beat 
English  dictionaries  will,  however,  furnish  some  information 
on  this  head,  to  those  who  are  desirous  of  obtaining  if. 
The  learned  Home  Tooke,  in  his  "Diversions  of  Purley," 
has  given  an  ingenious  account  of  the  derivation  and  mean- 
ing of  many  of  the  adverbs,  conjunctions,  and  prepositions. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  the  system  of  this  acute  gram- 
marian, is  f^jur.ded  in  truth ;  and  that  adverbs,  preposi- 
tions, and  coujunctions,  are  corruptions  or  abbreviations 
of  other  parts  of  speech.  B!it  as  many  of  them  are  deriv- 
ed from  obsolete  words  in  our  own  language,  or  from  words 
in  kindred  languages,  the  radical  meaning  of  which  ig 
therefore,  either  obscure,  or  generally  unknown  ;  as  the 
system  of  this  very  able  etymologist  is  not  universally  ad- 
mitted ;  and  as,  by  long  prescription,  whatever  may  have 
been  their  origin,  the  words  in  question  appear  to  have 
acquired  a  title  to  the  rank  of  distinct  species ;  it  seems 
proper  to  consider  them  as  such,  in  an  elementary  treatise 
of  grammar:  especially  as  this  plan  coincides  with  that, 
by  which  other  languages  must  be  taught ;  and  will  render 
the  study  of  them  less  intricate,  {t  is  of  small  moment, 
by  what  mean3  and  classification  we  distinguish  these 
words,  provided  their  meaning  and  use  are  well  under- 
stood. A  philosophical  consideration  of  the  subject,  may, 
with  great  propriety,  be  entered  upon  by  the  grammatical 
student,  whea  his  knowledge  and  judgment  become  more 
improved. 

Sect.  2.  A  sketch  of  ike  steps  by  which  the  English  Lan- 
guage has  risen  to  its  'present  state  of  refinement. 

Before  we  eoncluue  the  subject  of  derivation,  it  will  pro- 
bably be  gratifying  to  the  curious  scholar,  to  be  informed  of 
i3ome  particulars  respecting  flie  origin  of  the  English  language, 
and  the  variou>3  nations  to  w  hich  it  is  indebted  for  the  copi- 
ojsness,  elegance,  and  refinement,  which  it  has  now  attained. 

"When  the  ancient  Britons  were  so  harrassed  and  op- 
pressed by  the  invasions  of  their  northern  neighboursj  the 
Scots  and  Picts,  that  their  situation  was  truly  miserable, 
they  sent  an  embassy  (about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century) 
to  the  Saxons,  a  warlike   people  inhabiting  the   north  of 

l2 


126  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Germany,  with  solicitations  for  speedy  relief.  The  Saxons 
€'^ccordino;ly  came  overgto  Britain,  and  were  successful  in  re- 
pelling the  incursions  of  the  Scots  and  Picts  ;  but  seeing  the 
weak  and  defenceless  state  of  the  Britons,  they  resolved  to 
take  advantage  of  it;  and  at  length  established  themselves 
in  the  greater  part  of  South  Britain,  after  having  dispossess- 
ed the  original  inhabitants. 

"From  these  barbarians  who  founded  several  ])etty  king- 
doms in  this  Island,  and  introduced  their  own  laws,  lan- 
guage, and  manners,  is  derived  the  groundwork  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  ;  which  even  in  its  present  state  of  cultivation, 
and  notwithstanding  the  successive  augmcnlations  and  im- 
provements which  it  has  received  through  various  channels, 
dis[)lays  very  conspicuous  traces  of  its  Saxon  original. 

"The  Saxons  did  not  long  remain  in  quiet  j)Ossession  of 
the  kingdom  ;  for  before  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century, 
the  Danes,  a  hardy  and  adventurous  nation,  who  had  long 
infested  the  northern  seas  with  their  piracies,  began  to  rav- 
age the  English  coasts.  Their  first  attempts  were,  in  gen- 
eral, attended  with  such  8ucc€ss»that  they  were  encouraged 
to  aren«nval  of  their  ravages;  till,  at  length,  in  the  t)eginning 
of  the  eleventh  century,  they  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
greater  part  of  England. 

"Though  the  period,  during  which  these  invaders  occu- 
pied the  English  throne,  was  very  short,  not  greatly  exceed- 
ing half  a  century,  it  is  highly  probable  that  some  change 
was  introduced  by  them  into  the  language  spoken  by  those, 
whom  tliey  had  subdued  ;  but  this  change  cannot  be  SHppos- 
ed  to  hive  been  v^ry  considerable,  as  the  Danish  and  Saxoa 
languages  arose  from  one  common  sourer^,  the  Gothic  being 
the  parent  of  both. 

"The  next  conquerors  of  this  kingdom,  after  the  Danes, 
were  the  Normans,  who,  in  the  year  1066,  introduced  their 
leader  William,  to  the  possession  of  the  English  throne. 
This  prince,  soon  after  his  accession,  endeavoured  to  bring 
his  own  language  (the  Norman-French)  Into  use  among  his 
new  subjects;  but  his  efforts  were  not  very  successful,  as 
the  Saxons  entertained  a  great  anti])athy  to  those  haughty 
foreigners.  In  process  of  time,  however,  many  Norman 
words  and  phrases  were  incorporated  into  the  Saxon  lan- 
guage ;  but  its  general  form  and  construction  still  remained 
the  SiftOie* 


ETYMOLOGY. 

"From  the  conquest  to  the  Reformalion,  thc^ „     ... 

,  ,  .     *         .       ,  '  .     \  no  auxiha- 

tiiiued  to  receive  occasional  accessions  ot  tortig..^.  „ 

it  acquired  such  a  degree  of  copiousness  and  strenij^  .     , 
render  it  susceptible  of  that  polish,  which  it  has  recvf.  ' 
from  writers  ol*  taste  and  genius,  in  the  last  and  present  ce' 
turies.     During  this  |)erii>d,   the  learned  have  enriched  it 
with  many  significant  expressions,  drawn  from  the  treasures 
of  Greek  and  Roman  literature:  the  in«:eniousand  the  fash- 
ionable have  imported  occasional  supplies  of  French,  Span- 
ish, Italian,  and  German  words,  gleaned  during  their  foreign 
excursions;  and  the  connexions  which  we  maintain,  through 
the  medium  of  government  and  commerce,  with  many  re- 
mote nations,  have  made  some  additions  to  our  native  vo- 
cabulary. 

"In  this  manner  did  the  ancient  language  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  proceed,  through  the  various  stages  of  innovation, 
and  the  several  gradations  of  reiinement,  to  the  formation  of 
the  present  English  tongue." 


i2i  EXGLISU  GRAMMAR. 

PART  IIL 

SY?«TAX. 

The  third  part  of  grammar  is  syntax,  which 
treats  of  the  agreement  and  construction  of 
words  in  a  sentence. 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  form- 
ing a  complete  sense. 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  com- 
pound. 

A  simple  sentence  has  in  it  but  one  subject, 
and  one  finite^  verb:  as,  "Life  is  short." 

A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more 
simple  sentences,  joined  together  by  one  or 
more  connective  words :  as,  '-Life  is  short,  and 
art  is  long." 

As  seRtences  themselves  are  divided  into  simple  and  com- 
pound, so  the  memhers  of  sentences  may  he  divided  like- 
wise into  simple  and  compound  members:  for  whole  sen- 
tences, whether  simple  or  compounded,  may  hecome  mem' 
hers  of  other  sentences,  hy  means  of  some  additional  con- 
nexion ;  as  in  the  following  example  :  '''J'he  ox  knoweth  hi« 
owner,  and  the  ass  his  master's  crih ;  hut  Israel  dolh  not 
know,  my  people  do  not  consider.'*  This  sentence  consists 
of  two  compounded  members,  each  of  which  is  subdivided 
into  two  simple  members,  which  are  properly  called  clauses. 

Thert  are  three  sorts  of  simple  sentences  ;  tlie  (xplica- 
tive,  or  explaining;  the  interrogative,  or  asking;  the  impera- 
tive, or  commanding. 

An  explicative  sentence  is  when  a  thing  is  said  to  •**  or 
not  to  be,  to  do  or  not  to  do,  to  suffer  or  not  to  suffer,  in  a 
direct  manner  :  as,  '*I  am  ;  thou  writest ;  Thomas  is  loved.'' 
It  the  sentence  be  negative,  the  adverb  7iot  is  placed  after 

*Finite  verbs  are  those  to  which  number  and  persoD  appertaio.    Veib?  in  the  itj/Sw- 
Hive  mood  bave  no  respect  to  Dumber  or  persoa. 


ETYMOLOGY.  129 

the  auxiliary,  or  after  the  verU  itself  when  it  has  no  auxilia- 
ry :  as,  •'!  (lid  not  touch  him;"  or  "1  touclied  him  not." 

In  an  interrogative  sentence,  or  when  a  question  is  asked, 
the  nominative  case  follows  the  principal  verb  or  the  auxilia- 
ry :  as,  "Was  it  he  V  "Did  Alexander  conquer  the  Persians  ?" 

In  an  imperative  sentence  when  a  thing  is  commanded  to 
be,  to  do,  to  sutTer,  or  not,  the  nominative  case  likewise  fol- 
lows the  verb  or  the  auxiliary  :  as,  "Go  thou  traitor!"  "Do 
thou  go ;"  "Haste  ye  away  ;"  unless  the  verb  let  be  used;  as, 
''Let  us  be  gone." 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put 
together,  making  sotiietimes  parlof  a  sentence, 
and  sometimes  a  whole  sentence. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  are, 
the  subject,  tte  attribute,  and  the  object. 

The  subject  is  the  thing  chiefly  spoken  of; 
the  attribute  is  the  thing  or  action  affirmed  or 
denied  of  it :  and  the  object  is  the  thing  affect- 
ed by  such  action. 

The  nominative  denotes  the  subject,  and  us- 
ually goes  before  the  verb  or  attribute;  and 
the  word  or  phiase,  denoting  the  object,  fol- 
lows the  verb;  as,  "A  wise  man  governs  his 
passions."  Here,  a  ^v^se  man  is  the  subject  : 
govcrnsihe  attribute,  or  thing  affirmed;  andA«> 
passions  t  h  e  o  bj  e  c  t . 

S>  ntax  principally  consists  of  two  parts,  Con- 
cord and  Government, 

Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  word 
has  with  another,  in  gender,  nutnber,  case,  or 
person. 

Government  is  that  powder  which  one  part  of 
speech  has  over  another,  in  directing  its  mood, 
tense  or  case. 

To  produce  the  agreement  snd  right  dispo- 


130  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

siiion  of  words  in  a  sentence,  the  following  rules 
and  observations  should  be  carefully  studied. 


RULE    1. 

A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case,  in  number  and 
person:  as,  "I  leani;  "Thou  art  improved;"  "The  birds 
sing;." 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  the  violation  of  this 
rule.  "What  signifies  good  opinions,  when  our  practice  is 
bad  ?"  "what  A?j^n.j/?/.''  "The  Normans,  un<ler  which  gen- 
eral term  is  comprehended  the  Danes,  Norwegians,  and 
Swedes,  were  accustomed  to  slaughter  and  rapine  :"  "an 
comprehended."  "If  thou  would  be  easy  and  hap|)y  in  thy 
family,  be  careful  to  observe  discifjline  :"  "if  thou  wouldst.'" 
"Gold,  whence  came  thou?  whither  goes  thou  i'  when  will 
thou  come  again  T 'earnest^  goest,  nUty  "But  thou  false 
promiser,  never  shall  obtain  thy  purpose,"  it  ought  to  be 
"^^shaUy  "And  wheresoever  thou  turns  thy  view ;"  '■'hirnesV^ 
"There's  two  or  throe  of  us  have  seen  the  work  :"  "there 
flr^."  "Great  pains  has  been  taken  ;'^  "/iarc  been."  "I  have 
considered  what  have  been  8ai<l  on  both  sides  in  tlds  contro- 
versy ;"  "what /las  been  said."  "One  would  think  there 
%vas  more  sophists  than  one;"  "there  rv^^re  more."  "The 
number  of  the  names  together  were  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty ;"  ^^rvas  about." 

*1.  The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  is  some- 
times put  as  tlje  nominative  case  to  the  verb:  as,  "To  see 
the  sun  is  pieasint :"  "To  be  good  is  to  be  happy  ;"  "A  de- 
sire to  excel  others  in  learning  and  virtue  /^commendable;" 
"That  warm  climates  should  accelerate  the  growth  of  the 
human  body,  and  shorten  its  duration,  is  verj^  reasonable  to 
believe;"  "To  be  temj)crate  in  eating  and  4lrinking,  to  use 
exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  to  preserve  the  mind  free  from 
tumultuous  emotions,  are  the  best  preservatives  of  health  " 

2.  Every  verb,  except  in  the  inlinitive  mood,  or  the  par- 
ticiple, ought  to  have  a  nominative  case,  either  expressed  or 

*The  chief  practical  notes  urrJor  each  Rule,  are  regularly  numbered,  in  order  t« 
make  them  corre5i>oJi(Jto  th£  examples  in  the  volume  of  Exercises 


ETYMOLOGY  131 

implied:  as,  *'Awake,  arise;"  that  is,  "AAvake  ye;  arise 
ye:' 

We  shall  here  add  some  examples  of  inaccuracy,  in  the 
!i3e  of  the  verb  without  its  nominative  case.  "As  it  hath 
pleased  him  of  his  goodness  to  give  you  safe  deliverance, 
and  hath  preserved  you  in  the  great  danger,"  &c.  The  verb 
'^hath  preserved,'''^  has  here  no  nominative  case,  for  it  cannot 
be  properly  supplied  by  the  preceding  word,  '-'-him!!''  which  is 
in  the  objective  case.  It  ought  to  be,  "and  as  he  hath pre^ 
served  you  ;"  or  rather,  "and  to  preserve  you."  "If  the  calm 
in  which  he  was  born,  and  lasted  so  long,  bad  continued ;" 
'^and  which  lasted,"  &c.  "These  we  have  extracted  from 
an  historian  of  undoubted  credit,  and  are  the  same  thatwere 
practised,"  dc.  ;  "and  thet/  are  the  same."  "A  man  whose 
inclinations  led  him  to  be  corrupt,  and  had  great  abilities 
(o  manage  his  business  ;"  **and  who  had,"  &c.  "A  cloud 
gathering  in  the  north,  which  we  have  helped  to  raise,  and 
may  quickly  break  in  a  storm  upon  our  heads  ;"  "and  which 
may  quickly." 

3.  Every  nominative  case,  except  the  case  absolute,  and 
when  an  address  is  made  to  a  person,  should  belong  to  some 
verb,  either  expressed  or  implied  :  as,  "Who  wrote  this 
book?"  "James;"  that  is,  "James  wrote  it."  "To  whom 
thus  Adam,"  that  is,  "spoke." 

One  or  two  instances  of  the  improper  use  of  the  nomina- 
tive case,  without  any  verb,  expressed  or  implied,,  to  answer 
t,  may  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  usefulness  of  the  prece- 
ding observation. 

^'IVhich  rule^  if  it  had  been  observed,  a  neighboring  prince 
would  have  wanted  a  great  deal  of  that  incense  which  hath 
been  offered  up  to  him."  The  pronoun  it  is  here  the  nom- 
inative case  in  the  verb  "observed ;"  and  which  rule,  is  left 
by  itself,  a  nominative  case  without  any  verb  following  it 
This  form  of  expression,  though  improper,  is  very  common. 
It  ought,  to  be  "J/*  this  rule  had  been  observed,"  &c.  ^^Man^ 
though  he  has  great  variety  of  thoughts,  and  such  from  which 
others  as  well  as  himself  might  receive  profit  and  delight, 
yet  they  are  all  within  his  own  breast."  In  this  sentence, 
the  nominative  man  stands  alone  and  unconnected  with  any 
verb,  either  expressed  or  implied*  It  should  be,  ''''Though 
man  has  great  variety,"  8cc. 


132  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  1, 

4.  When  a  verb  comes  between  two  nouns,  either  of 
\vhich  mny  be  understood  as  the  subject  of  the  affirmation, 
it  may  agree  with  eitlier  of  them  ;  but  some  rea^ard  must  be 
had  to  that  which  is  more  naturally  the  subject  of  it,  as  also 
to  that  which  stands  next  to  the  verb:  as,  "His  meat  was 
locusts  and  wild  honey;"  "A  «;reat  cause  of  the  low  state  of 
industry  were  the  restraints  put  upon  it ;"  The  "wages  of  sia 
26' death." 

5.  When  the  nominative  case  has  no  [)ersonal  tense  of  a 
verb,  but  is  put  before  a  participle,  independently  on  the 
rest  of  the  senlcncej  it  is  calle(i  the  case  alisolute  :  as, 
"Sliame  beii^  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost;  "That  bavins:  been 
discussed  lonji;  ago  tliere  is  no  occasion  to  reeinne  it." 

As  in  the  Jise  ol  the  case  absolute,  the  case  is,  in  English, 
always  the  no  ninative,  the  following;  example  is  erroneous, 
in  making  it  the  objective.  "Solomon  w  as  of  this  mind  ; 
and  1  have  no  doul)t  made  as  wise  and  true  proverbs,  as  any 
body  has  done  since  ;  him  only  excej)ted,  w  ho  was  a  much 
greater  and  wiser  man  than  Solomon."  It  should  be,  "/le 
only  cxcei»ted." 


The  nominative  case  is  commonly  placed  before  the  verb; 
but  sometimes  it  is  put  alter  the  verb,  if  it  is  asimple  tense; 
and  between  the  auxiliary,  and  the  verb  or  participle,  if  a 
compound  tense :  as, 

1st.  When  a  question  is  asked,  a  command  given,  or  a  wish 
expressed  :  as,  "Contidest  thou  in  me  ?"  "Read  thou  ;" 
"Mayst  thou  be  happy  !"  "Long  live  the  king!" 

2.  When  a  supposition  is  made  without  the  conjunction 
if :  as,  "Were  it  not  lor  this;"  *'had  1  been  there." 

3d.  When  a  verb  neuter  is  used  :  as,  "On  a  sudden  ap- 
peared the  king." 

4th.  W  hen  the  verb  is  ))receded  by  the  adverbs,  here,  tJure, 
then,  thence,  hmce,  thus,  d:c. :  as,  "Here  am  1 ;"  "There  was 
he  sldin ;"  -Ttien  cometh  the  end;"  "Thence  ariseth  his 
grief;"  "Hence  proceeds  his  anger;"  "Thus  was  the  aiTair 
oettled." 

5th.  When  a  sentence  depends  on  neither  or  nor,  so  as 


Rule  2.)  SYNTAX.  133 

to  be  coupled  with  another  sentence  :  as,  "Ye  shall  not  eat 
of  it,  neither  shall  ye  touch  it,  lest  ye  die." 

The  phrases,  as  follows,  as  appears,  form  what  are  called 
impersonal  veri.s;  and  should,  therefore,  be  confined  to  the 
singular  number;  as,  "The  arguments  advanced  were  near- 
\y  as  follows  ;"  "The  positions  were  as  appears  incontrovert- 
i  »le  ;"  that  is,  ''as  it  follows,"  "as  it  appears."  Jf  v^e  give 
the  sentence  a  different  turn,  and  instead  of  as,  say  ^uch  asy 
the  verb  is  no  longer  termed  impersonal ;  but  properly  a- 
grees  with  its  nominative  in  the  plural  number :  as,  "The 
arpjuments  advanced  were  nearly  such  as  follow  /'  "The  po- 
sitions were  such  as  appear  incontrovertible."* 

They  who  are  inclined  to  favor  the  opinion  of  Home 
Tooke,  "That  as,  however  and  whenever  used  in  English, 
means  the  same  as  it  or  that  or  which  ;"  and  who  are  not  sat- 
isfied whether  the  verbs,  in  the  sentences  first  mentioned, 
should  be  in  the  singular  or  the  plural  number,  may  vary  the 
form  of  expression.  Thus,  the  sense  of  the  preceding  sen- 
tences, may  be  conveyed  in  the  following  terms.  ''The  ar- 
guments advanced  were  nearly  of  the  following  nature ;" 
"The  following  are  nearly  thse  arguments  which  were  ad- 
vanced;" "The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly  those 
which  follow  ;"  'It  appears  that  the  positions  were  incontro- 
vertible ;"  "That  the  positions  were  incontrovertible  is  ap- 
parent ;"  "The  positions  were  apparently  incontrovertible." 


RULE  II. 

Two  or  more  nouns,  &c.  in  (he  singular  num- 
ber, joined  together  by  one  or  more  copulative 

*Tn  our  ideas  on  this  subject,  we  are  supported  by  general  usage,  and  by  the  au- 
thority ol  an  eminent  critic  on  language  and  compositio-: .  "When  a  verb  is  used  im- 
personally," says  Dr.  Campbell  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  "it  ought  undoub+er'ly 
to  be  in  the  singular  number,  whether  the  neuter  pronoun  be  exjjessed  or  under- 
stood." For  this  reason,  analogy  and  usage  favor  this  mode  of  expression:  "The 
conditions  of  the  agreement  were  as  follows  ;"  and  not  ax  follow.  A  few  late  writers 
have  inconsiderately  adopted  this  last  form  through  a  mistake  of  the  construction. 
For  the  same  reason,  we  ought  to  say,  *'I  shall  consider  bis  censures  so  far  only  as 
eoncerns  my  friend's  conduct ;"  and  not  "so  far  as  concern.^* 

M 


134  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  2. 

conjunctions,  expressed  or  understood,  must 
have  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns,  agreeing  with 
them  in  the  plural  number:  as,  "Socrates  and 
Plato  were  wise  ;  they  were  the  most  eminent 
philosophers  of  Greece  ;"  "The  sun  that  rolls 
over  our  heads,  the  food  that  we  receive,  the 
rest  that  we  enjoy,  daily  admonish  us  of  a  su- 
perior and  seperintending  Power."^ 

This  rule  is  often  violated  :  some  instances  which  are  an- 
nexed. *'And  so  was  also  Jaii.**  s  and  John  the  sons  of  Zeb- 
edee,  who  were  partners  with  Simon  ;"  "and  so  were  also." 
**AII  joy,  tranquility,  and  peace,  even  for  ever  and  ever  doth 
dwell  f  '^dweU  for  ever."  ''By  whose  power  all  good  and 
evil  is  distributed ;"  ^^are  distributed."  "Their  love,  and 
their  hatred,  and  their  envy,  is  now  perished  ;"  ""'are  perish- 
ed." "The  thou2;htles3  and  intemperate  enjoyment  of 
pleasure,  the  criminal  abuse  of  it,  and  the  forgetfulness  of 
our  being  accountable  creatDres,  obliterates  every  serious 
thought  of  the  proper  business  of  life  and  etfaces  the  sense 
of  religion  and  of  God  ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "-obliterate  and  efface.^'' 

1.  When  the  nouns  are  nearly  related  or  scarcely  distin- 
guishable in  sense,  and  sometimes  even  when  they  are  very 
ditferent,  some  authors  have  thought  it  allowable  to  put  the 
verbs,  nouns  and  pronouns,  in  the  singular  number :  as, 
"Tranquility  and  peace  dwells  Uiere ;"  "Ignorance  and  neg- 
ligence has  procured  the  effect;"  "The  discomfiture  and 
slaughter  was  very  great."  But  it  is  evidently  contrary  to 
the  first  principles  of  grammar,  to  consider  two  distinct  ideas 
as  one,  however  nice  may  be  their  shades  of  difference  :  and 
if  there  be  no  difference,  one  of  them  must  be  superfluous, 
and  ought  to  be  rejected. 

To  support  the  above  construction,  it  is  said  that  the  verb 
may  be  understood  as  applied  to  each  of  the  preceding 
terms  ;  as  in  the  following  example.  "Sand,  and  salt  and 
a  mass  of  iron  is  easier  to  bear  than  a  man  without  under- 
standing.*' But  besides  the  confusion,  and  the  latitude  of 
application,  which  such  a  construction  would  iiitroduce,  it 

^  See  S,ty  to  the  English  Exercises.    Ifintk  edition,  p.  23. 


Rule  2.)  SYNTAX,  135 

appears  to  be  more  proper  and  analogical,  in  cases  where  the 
verb  is  intended  to  be  applied  to  any  one  of  the  terms,  to 
make  use  of  the  disjanctive  conjunction,  which  grammatic- 
ally refers  the  verb  to  one  or  other  of  the  preceding  terms 
in  a  separate  view.  To  preserve  the  distinctive  uses  of  the 
copulative  and  disjunctive  conjunctions  would  render  the 
rules  precise,  consistent  and  intelligible.  Dr.  Blair  very 
juslly  observes  that  *'tvvo  or  more  substantives,  joined  by  a 
copulative,  muBtalrvai^s  require  the  verb  or  pronoun  to  which 
they  refer,  to  be  placed  in  the  plural  number." 

2.  In  mjny  complex  sentences,  it  is  difficult  for  learners 
to  determine,  whether  one  or  move  of  the  clauses  are  to  be 
considered  as  the  nominative  case  ;  and  consequently  wheth- 
er the  verbs  should  be  in  the  giogular  or  plural  number.  We 
shall,  therefore,  set  down  a  number  of  varied  examples,  of 
this  nature,  which  may  serve  as  some  government  to  the 
scholar,  with  respect  to  sentences  of  a  similar  construction- 
"Prosperity  with  humility,  renders  its  possessor  truly  amia- 
ble." "The  ship  with  all  her  furniture  was  destroyed."  "Not 
only  his  estate,  his  reputation  too  has  sutfered  by  his  mis- 
conduct.*' "The  general  also,  in  conjunction  with  the  offi- 
cers has  applied  for  redress."  "He  cannot  be  justified  ;  for 
it  is  true,  that  the  prince,  as  well  as  the  people,  was  blame- 
worthy." "The  king  with  his  life-guard,  has  just  passed 
through  the  village."  "In  the  mutual  influence  of  body  and 
soul,  there  is  a  wisdom,  a  wonderiul  wisdom,  which  we  can- 
not fathom."  "Virtue,  honor,  nay,  even  self-interest  can- 
spire  to  recommend  the  measure."  "Patriotism,  morality, 
every  public  and  private  consideration,  demand  our  submis- 
sion to  just  and  lawful  government.^  "Nothing  fifc/i^te  me 
so  much  as  the  works  of  nature." 

In  support  of  such  forms  of  expression  as  the  following, 
we  see  the  authority  of  Hume,  Priestly,  and  other  writers; 
and  we  annex  them  for  the  reader's  consideration.  "A  long 
course  of  time,  with  a  variety  of  accidents  and  circumstan- 
ces, arc  requisite  to  produce  these  revolutions."  "The 
king,  with  the  lords  and  commons,  form  an  excellent  frame 
of  government."  "The  side  A,  with  the  sides  B  and  C, 
compose  the  triangle."  "The  fire  communicated  itsell  to  the 
bed,  which,  with  the  furniture  of  the  room,  and  a  valuable 
library^  were  all  entirely  eonsumedr"    It  is  however,  proper 


13«  EN^GLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  3. 

to  observe,  that  these  modes  of  expression  do  not  appear  to 
be  warranted  by  the  just  principles  of  construction.  The 
Avords  "A  long  course  of  time,"  "The  king,"  "The  side  A," 
and  "which"  are  the  true  nominatives  to  the  respective  verbs. 
In  the  last  exdmj)!e,  the  word  all  should  be  expunged.  As 
the  preposition  7vith  governs  the  objective  case  in  English  ; 
and  if  translated  into  L  itin,  would  govern  the  ablative  case, 
it  is  manifest,  that  the  clauses  following  7Vithj  in  the  prece- 
ding sentences,  cannot  f)rm  any  part  of  the  noyninativecase. 
They  cannot  be  at  the  same  time  in  the  objective  and  the 
nominative  cases.  The  following  sentence  appears  to  be 
U'lexceptionable ;  and  may  serve  to  explain  the  others. 
"The  lords  and  commons  are  essential  branches  of  the  Brit- 
ish coiistitution  ;  the  king  with  ihtm,  forms  an  excellent 
Ir  inie  of  gov(  rnment.''^ 

3.  If  the  singular  nouns  and  pronouns,  which  are  joined 
together  by  a  co()ulative  conjunction,  be  of  several  persons, 
in  making  the  plural  pronoun  agree  with  them  in  person,  the 
second  person  takes  jilace  of  the  third,  and  the  first  of  both  : 
as,  "James,  and  thou,  and  I,  are  attached  to  our  country. ' 
^'Tliou  and  he  shared  it  between  vo?/.'' 

UULE  III.  ^ 

The  conjiinclion  disjunctive  has  an  effect 
contrary  to  that  of  the  conjunction  copulative  ; 
forasthe  verb,  noun  or  pronoun,  is  referred  to 
the  preceding  terms  taken  separately,  it  must 
be  in  the  sin^^ular  number:  as,  "Ignorance  or 
negligence  has  caused  this  mistake  ;"  "John, 
James  or  Joseph  intends  to  accompany  me." 
There  /.?,  in  many  minds,  neither  knowledge 
nor  understanding.'' 

The  following  sentences  are   variations   from   this  rule  : 

A  man  may    see   a   metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture, 

.13  well  as  read  them  in  a  description;"  "read  ?7."     "Nei- 

tlier  character  nor   dialogue   were  yet  understood ;"  '''was 

*  Though  the  construction  will  not  admit  of  a  plural  verb,  the  sentence  would  cer- 
tainly staniJ  better  thus;  "The  king,  the  lords,  and  the  comraoas,  form  an  excellent 
constitution." 


Rule  4.)  SYNTAX.  ^  137 

yet."  "It  must  indeed  be  confessed,  that  a  lampoon  or  a 
satire  do  not  carry  in  them  robbery  and  murder ;"  ''docs  not 
carry  in  i7."  "Death,  or  some  worse  misfortune,  soon  di- 
vide them."     It  ought  to  be  '■'divides'^ 

1.  When  singular  pronouns  of  different  persons  are  dis- 
junctively connected,  the  verb  must  agree  with  that  person 
which  is  pldced  nearest  to  it :  as,  '4  or  thou  art  to  blame  ;" 
'Thou  or  I  am  in  fault ;"  "I,  or  thou,  or  he,  is  the  author  of 

it."  But  it  wouid  be  better  to  say  ;  "Either  I  am  to  biame 
or  thou  art,"  &c. 

2.  When  a  disjunctive  occurs  betw^een  a  singular  noun, 
or  pronoun,  and  a  plural  one,  the  verb  is  made  to  agree  with 
the  plural  noun  and  pronoun  :  as,  "Neither  poverty  nor 
riches  were  injurious  to  bira  :"  "I  or  they  were  offended  by 
it."  But  in  this  case,  the  plural  noun  or  pronoun,  when  it 
can  conveniently  be  done,  should  be  placed  next  to  the  verb* 

RULE  IV. 

The  noun  of  multitude,  or  signifying  many, 
may  have  a  verb  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it, 
either  of  the  singular  or  plural  number :  yet 
not  without  regard  to  the  import  of  the  word, 
as  conveying  unity  or  plurality  of  idea  :  as, 
"The  meeting  was  large  ;"  "The  parliament  is 
dissolved  ;"  "The  nation  is  powerful ;"  "My 
people  do  not  consider  :  they  have  not  known 
me;"  "The  niultitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure 
as  their  chief  good  ;"  "The  council  were  divided 
in  their  sentiments." 

We  ought  to  consider  whether  the  term  will  immediately 
suggest  the  idea  of  the  number  it  represents,  or  whether  it 
exhibits  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  the  whole  as  one  thing. 
In  the  former  case,  the  verb  ought  to  be  plural;  in  the  lat- 
ter, it  ought  to  be  singular.  Thus  it  seems  improper  to  say, 
"the  peasantry  ^0^5  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort  makes  use 
of  wooden  shoes,"  It  would  be  better  to  say,  "The  peas- 
antry go  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort  7nake  use,"  Szc.  be- 
cause the  idea  in  both  these  cases,  is  that  of  a  numbtc.  On 
•M.2      • 


138  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  4. 

the  contrary,  there  is  a  harshness  in  the  following  sentences 
in  which  nouns  of  number  have  verbs  plural ;  because  the 
ideas  they  represent  seem  not  to  be  sufficiently  divided  in 
the  mind.  "The  court  of  Rome  were  not  without  solicitude." 
**The  house  of  commons  were  of  small  weight,"  '*The 
house  of  lords  were  so  much  influenced  by  these  reasons." 
•^Steven's  party  were  entirely  broken  up  by  the  captivity  of 
their  leader."  "An  army  of  twenty-four  thousand  were  as- 
sembled." "What  reason  have  the  church  of  Rome  for  pro- 
ceeding in  this  manner  ?"  "There  is  indeed  no  constitu- 
tion so  tame  and  careless  of  their  own  defence."  "All  the 
virtues  of  mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few  (ingers,  but 
his  follies  and  vices  are  innumerable."  Is  not  mankind  la 
this  place  a  noun  of  multitude,  and  such  as  requires  the  pro- 
noun referring  to  it  to  be  in  the  plural  number,  their? 

RULE  V. 

Pronouns  must  always  agree  with  their  an- 
tecedents, and  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand, 
in  gender  and  number :  as,  "This  is  the  friend 
ichom  I  love  ;"  "Tliat  is  the  vice  which  I  hate  ;" 
"The  king  and  the  queen  had  put  on  their 
robes  ;"  "The  moon  appears,  and  she  shines, 
but  the  light  is  not  her  own/^ 

The  relative  is  of  the  same  person  as  the  an- 
tecedent, and  the  verb  agrees  with  it  accord- 
ingly ;  as,  Thou  ivho  lovest  wisdom  ;"  "1  who 
sjjcak  from  experience." 

Of  this  rule  there  are  many  violations  to  be  met  with ;  a 
few  of  which  may  be  sufficient  to  put  the  learner  on  his 
guard.  **Each  of  the  sexes  should  keep  within  its  particu- 
lar bounds,  and  content  themselves  with  the  advantage  of  their 
particular  districts  :  better  thus ;  "The  sexes  should  keep 
within  their  particular  bounds,"  &c.  "Can  any  one,  on  their 
entrance  into  \he  \^orld,  be  fully  secure  that  they  shall  not 
be  deceived  ?"  ''on  his  entrance  "  and  "that  he  shall."  "One 
should  not  think  too  favorably  of  ourselves ;"  "of  ones  self.^^ 
♦*Hp  hnd  one  acquaintance  which  poisoued  his  disciples  f 
*^who  poisoned.'^ 


Rule  5.)  SYNTAX.  139 

Every  relative  must  have  an  antecedent  to  which  it  refers, 
either  expressed  or  implied;  as,  ''Who  is  fatal  to  others,  is 
so  himself:"  that  is,  ^'•the  man  who  is  fatal  to  others." 

Wlio^  ?vhich,  rvhaty  and  the  relative  that,  though  in  the  oh- 
jective  case,  are  always  placed  before  the  verb  ;  as  are  ateo 
their  compounds,  whoever,  whosoever,  <fec. ;  as,  "He  whom  ye 
seek;"  "This  is  what  or  the  thing  which,  or  that  you  want ;" 
"Whomsoever  you  please  to  appoint." 

What  is  sometimes  applied  rather  improperly,  to  the  plural 
number:  as,  "All  fevers,  except  what  are  called  nervous," 
&c.  It  would  be  better  to  say,  "except  those  which  are  called 
Bervous." 

1.  Personal  pronouns  being  used  to  supply  the  place  of 
the  noun,  are  not  employed  in  the  same  part  of  a  sentence  as 
the  noun  which  they  represent;  for  it  would  be  improper  to 
say,  "The  king  he  is  just;"  "I  saw  her  the  queen  ;"  "The 
men  they  were  there;"  "Many  words  they  darken  speech;" 
"My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees."  These  personals 
are  siff)erfluous,  as  there  is  not  the  least  occasion  for  a  sub- 
stitute in  the  same  part  where  the  principal  word  is  present. 
The  nominative  case  they,  in  the  following  sentence,  is  also 
superfluous  ;  "Who,  instead  of  going  about  doing  good,  they 
are  perpetually  intent  upon  doing  mischief." 

2.  The  pronoun  that  is  frequently  applied  to  persons  as 
well  as  to  things ;  but  after  an  adjective  in  the  superlative 
degree,  and  after  the  pronominal  adjective  same,  it  is  gen- 
erally used  in  preference  to  who  or  which:  as,  "Charles 
XII,  king  of  Sweden,  was  one  of  the  greatest  madmen 
that  the  world  ever  saw ;"  "Cataline's  followers  were  the 
most  profligate  that  could  be  found  in  any  city."  "He  is 
the  same  man  that  we  saw  before."  There  are  cases 
wherein  we  cannot  conveniently  dispense  with  this  relative 
as  applied  to  persons  :  as  first,  after  who  the  interrogative  ; 
"Who  that  has  any  sense  of  religion,  would  have  argued 
thus  ?"  Secondly,  when  persons  make  but  a  part  of  the  an- 
tecedent ;  "The  woman,  and  the  estate,  that  became  his 
portion  were  too  much  for  his  moderation."  In  neither  of 
these  examples  could  any  other  relative  have  been  used. 

3.  The  pronouns  whichsoever^  whosoever^  and  the  like, 
are  elegantly  divided  by  the  interposition  of  the  correspond- 
ing substantives:   thus,  "On  whichsoever  side  the  king 


140  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  5. 

cast  his  eyes;"  would  have  sounded  better,  if  written,  "On 
which  side  soever,"  Sec. 

4.  Many  persons  are  apt,  in  conversation,  to  put  the  ob- 
jective case  of  the  (personal  pronouns,  in  the  place  of  these 
Hn(\  those ;  i\s,  "Give  me  them  books;"  instead  of  ^^  those 
books."  We  may  sometimes  tind  this  fault  even  in  writing: 
as,  "Observe  them  three  there."  We  also  frequently  meet 
with  those  instead  of  thei/^  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence, 
and  where  there  is  no  p.irticular  reference  to  an  aufecedent  ; 
as,  '''Those  that  sow  in  tears,  sometimes  reap  in  J03%"  Thc^ 
that  or  thfT/  who  sow  in  tears. 

It  is  not,  however,  always  easy  to  sny^  whether  a  per- 
sonal pronoun  or  a  demonstrative  is  prefera!>le,  in  certain 
constructions.  "We  are  not  unacquainted  with  the  calumny 
of  ihem  [or  those]  who  openly  make  use  of  the  warmest  pro- 
ftssions" 

5  "In  some  dialects  the  word  what  is  improperly  used 
for  that,  and  sometimes  we  find  it  in  this  sense  in  writing: 
*'They  will  never  believe  but  what  I  have  been  entif^ly  to 
blame."  "I  am  not  satisfied  but  what,  <tc.  instead  of  *'but 
thatJ*^  The  word  somewhat,  in  the  following  sentence, 
seems  to  be  usetl  improperly.  "These  punishments  seem 
to  have  l>een  exercised  iu  somewhat  an  arbitr<try  manner." 
Sometimes  we  read,  "In  somewhat  of."  Tlie  meaning  is^ 
"in  a  manner  which  is  in  some  respects  arbitrary." 

6.  The  pronoun  relative  who  is  so  much  appropriated  to 
persons,  that  there  is  generally  harshness  in  the  applica- 
tion of  it,  except  to  the  proper  nam(S*of  persons,  or  the 
genera'  terms,  man,  woman,  <fcc.  A  term  which  oidy  im- 
plies the  idea  of  persons  and  expresses  them  by  some  cir- 
cumstance or  epithet  will  hardly  authorize  the  use  of  it  :  as, 
"The  faction  iu  England  7vho  most  powerfully  oppose  hia 
arbitrary  pretensions."  "That  faction  tvhich,^^  would  have 
been  better;  and  the  same  remark  will  serve  for  the  follow- 
ing examples  :  "France  7vho  was  in  alliance  with  Sweden." 
"The  court  7vho,''  &c,  "The  cavalry  ivAo."  *'The  cities 
who  aspired  at  liberty."  "The  party  among  us  7r/i(?,"  &c. 
"The  family  whom  they  consider  as  usurpers." 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  doubtful,  whether  this  pro- 
noun is  properly  applie<i  or  not :  as,  "The  number  of  sub- 
stantial inhabitants  with  whom  some  cities  abound."     For 


Rule  5.)  SYNTAX.  141 

whea  a  term  directly  and  neot'ssHrily  implies  persons,  it  may 
ill  ?n  iny  cases  clriim  the  nersjuil  relaiive.  "None  of  the 
CO  n  )  iny  whom  he  most  aifected,  could  cure  him  of  the  mel- 
ancioly  nniier  which  he  laior'^.l."  The  word  acquaintance 
may  have  the  s-i-.ne  I'.onstriictioii. 

7.  We  hardly  c o.isider  little  children  as  persons,  because 
that  term  «;ives  us  the  idea  of  reason  and  reliection  ;  and 
therefore  theap[)licatioa  of  the  personal  reiativi^  wh)^  in  this 
case,  seems  to  be  hars'i  :  "A  child  /y/i9."  It  is  siill  more 
im  )ro!)erly  applied  to  aniniiis:  "A  like  frequented  hy  that 
fowl  whom  nature  has  taa.!;ht  to  <lip  tiie  wiui^'  m  water." 

8.  Wiien  the  name  of  a  person  is  used  merely  as  a  name 
and  does  ;ioi  refer  to  the  perso:*,  the  pr>.io\ai  •^vhlch  ought  to 
be  used,  aa^l  not  who  :  as,  '4t  is  no  woader  if  sach  a  man 
dll  not  shine  at  the  court  of  queen  Elizabeth,  who  was  fiut 
a'loi'ier  nam-^  for  prudence  and  economy."  The  word  whose 
bexiijs  likewise  to  be  restricted  to  persons  ;  yet  it  is  not  done 
so  generally,  but  that  good  writers  even  in  [)r^»se,  use  it  when 
speaking  of  things.  The  construction  is  not.  however,  gen- 
ernlly  pleHsins:,  ns  we  may  see  in  the  following  iiistances  : 
"Pleasure,  whoi^n  nature,"  «fec,  ''Call  every  production,  wh{}se 
parts  and  w'lose  nature,"  <fec. 

In  one  cfise,  however,  custom  authorizes  us  to  use  which^ 
Vf\{h  respect  to  persons;  and  tliat  is  when  we  want  to  dis- 
tinguish one  person  of  two,  or  a  particular  person  among  a 
nunier  of  others.  We  should  then  s  ly,  ^^fVtdchoi  the  two," 
or  ''Which  of  them  is  he  or  she  /" 

9.  As  the  pronoun  relttive  has  no  disSmction  of  number, 
we  sometimes  find  an  amhio-uity  in  the  use  ot  it:  as  when  we 
say,  "The  disciples  of  Christ,  whom  \w„^  imitate;"  we  mty 
mean  the  imitation  either  of  Christ,  or  of  his  disciples.  The 
accuracy  and  clearness  of  the  sentence,  depend  very  much 
upon  the  proper  and  determinate  use  of  the  relative,  so  that 
it  may  readily  present  its  antecedent  to  the  mind  of  the  hear- 
er or  reader,  without  any  obscurity  or  ambiguity. 

10.  It  is  and  it  was,  are  often,  after  the  manner  of  the 
French,  used  in  a  plural  construction,  and  by  some  of  our 
best  writ(ers  :  as,  *'J^  is  either  a  few  great  men  who  decide 
for  the  whole,  or  it  is  the  rabble  that  follow  a  seditious  ring- 
leader ;"  ''It  is  they  that  are  the  real  authors,  though  the  sol- 
diers are  the  actors  of  the  revolutions  ;"  ''It  was  ihe  heretics 


142  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  6. 

that  first  began  to  rail,"  «fec.  *'  ^Tis  these  that  early  taint 
the  female  minil."  This  license  in  the  construction  of  li  i>, 
(if  it  be  proper  to  admit  it  at  all)  has,  however,  been  cer- 
tainly abused  in  the  following  sentence,  which  is  thereby 
made  a  very  aukward  one  :  ^'It  is  wonderful  the  very  few 
accidents,  which  in  several  years,  happen  from  this  prac- 
tice." 

11.  The  interjections  O !  Oh!  and  Ah!  require  the  ob- 
jective cuae  of  a  pronoun  in  the  first  jierson  after  them  :  as, 
*'0  me!  Oh  m^^ !  Ah  me!  But  the  nominative  case  in  the 
second  person;  as,  "0  thou  persecutor  !"  "0  ye  hypocrittB  t' 


The  neuter  pronoun,  by  an  idiom  peculiar  to  the  English 
language,  is  frequently  joineti  in  explanatory  sentences,  with 
a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  masculine  or  feminine  gender:  as, 
**lt  was  I  :"  "It  was  the  man  or  woman  that  did  it." 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  omitted  and  under- 
stood:  thus  we  say,  "As  appears,  as  follows;"  for  "As  it 
appears,    as  it  follows;"  and  "May  be,"  for  "It  may  be." 

The  neuter  pronoun  it,  is  sometimes  employed  to  express; 

1st,  The  subject  of  any  discourse  or  in(juiry  :  as,  "//  hap- 
pened on  a  summer's  day  ;"  "Who  is  it  that  calls  on  me  ?" 

2d,  The  state  or  condition  of  any  person  or  thing;  as, 
"How  is  it  with  you?" 

3d,  The  thins:,  whatever  it  be,  that  is  the  cause  of  any 
effect  or  event,  or  any  (»erson  considered  merely  as  a  cause : 
as,  "We  heard  her  say  it  was  not  he ;"  "The  truth  is,  it  was 
I  that  helped  her." 


RULE  VI. 

The  relative  is  the  nominative  case  to  the 
verb,  when  no  nominative  comes  between  it 
and  the  verb  :  as,  "The  master  who  taught  iisi" 
"The  trees  tvhich  are  planted/' 


Rule  6.]  SYNTAX.  143 

When  a  nominative  comes  between  the  rel- 
ative and  the  verb,  the  relative  is  governed  by 
some  word  in  its  own  member  of  the  sentence, 
as,  ^'He  who  preserves  me,  to  vjhom  I  owe  my 
being,  whose  I  am,  and  whom  I  serve,  is  eter- 
nal.^' 

In  the  several  members  of  the  last  sentence,  the  relative 
performs  a  different  office.  In  the  first  member,  it  marks 
the  agent;  in  the  second,  it  submits  to  the  government  of 
the  preposition ;  in  the  third,  it  represents  the  possessor; 
and  in  the  fourth,  the  object  of  an  action  :  and  therefore  it 
must  be  in  the  three  different  cases,  correspondent  to  those 
offices. 

When  both  the  antecedent  and  relative  become  nomina- 
tives, each  to  different  verbs,  the  relative  is  the  nominative 
to  the  former,  and  the  antecedent  to  the  latter  verb:  as, 
^''True  philosophy^  fvhich  is  the  ornament  of  our  nature,  con- 
sists  more  in  the  love  of  our  duty,  and  the  practice  of  virtue, 
than  in  great  talents  and  extensive  knowledge." 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  construction,  will  illustrate 
both  the  branches  of  the  sixth  rule.  The  three  following 
refer  to  the  first  part.  "How  can  we  avoid  being  gratf  ful 
to  those  whom,  by  repeated  kind  offices,  have  proved  them- 
selves our  real  friends  ?"  "These  are  the  men  whom,  you 
might  suppose,  were  the  authors  of  the  work :"  '*If  you 
were  here,  you  would  find  three  or  four,  whom  you  would 
say  passed  their  time  agreeably :"  In  all  these  places  it 
should  be  who  instead  of  whom.  The  two  latter  sentences 
contain  a  nominative  between  the  relative  and  the  verb; 
and  therefore,  seem  to  contravene  the  rule :  but  the  student 
will  reflect,  that  it  is  not  the  nominative  of  the  verb  with 
which  the  relative  is  connected.  The  remaining  examples 
refer  to  the  second  part  of  the  rule.  "Men  of  fine  talents 
are  not  always  the  persons  who  we  should  esteem."  'The 
persons  who  you  dispute  with  are  precisely  of  your  opinion." 
"Our  tutors  are  our  benefactors,  who  we  owe  obedience  to^ 
and  who  we  ought  to  love."  In  these  sentences,  whom 
should  be.  used  instead  of  who. 

1 V  When  the  relative  pronoun  is  of  the  interrogative  kind, 
the  noua  or  pronoun  containing  the  answer,  must  be  in  the 


144  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  7. 

same  case  as  that  which  coniains  the  question  :  as,  '•''Whose 
books  are  thise  ?'  "  «'hey  are  Jchti's''^  "fr/iogave  them 
to  him  ?  Wc:'  ^*0f  whom  did  you  buy  Wwm  ?  Of  a  i  ook- 
seiler;  /iwi  who  lives  at  the  Bible  Mud  Crown.'*  '^Whoin 
did  3'ou  s»'e  there?  Both  him  and  the  S(.o{  man."  The  h^ar- 
ner  will  rea<lily  comprehend  this  rule  by  sn}>()lyin<r  the  words 
■which  are  undersiood  in  the  answers.  Thus  to  express  the 
answers  at  large,  we  should  &ny,  *'They  are  John's  l)ooks.'" 
*'\Ve  gave  them  to  him"  "We*  bought  them  of  him  who 
lives,"  <tc.  "We  saw  ooth  him  and  the  shopman." — As  the 
relative  pronoun  when  ust^d  interr6jr;-tively  refers  to  the 
subsequent  wont  or  phrase  containino  the  answer  to  the 
question,  that  word  or  phrase  may  properly  be  termed  the 
subsequent  to  the  interrogative. 


RULE  VIL 

When  the  relative  is  preceded  by  two  nom- 
inatives of  diflerent  persons,  the  relative  and 
verb  may  agree  in  person  with  either,  accord- 
ing; lo  the  sense :  as,  "I  am  tiie  man  icho  com- 
mand  vou  ;    or,  "I   am  the  man  who  commands 

you." " 

The  form  of  the  first  of  the  (wo  preceding  sentences,  ex- 
presses the  meaning  rathtr  obscurely  It  would  be  more 
perspicuous  to  say,  "I,  who  command  you,  am  the  man." 
Pel  haps  the  difference  of  meaning,  produced  hy  referring 
the  relative  to  dilFf  rent  antecedents,  will  be  more  evident 
to  the  learner,  in  the  following  8»^ntences  :  **I  am  the  gene- 
ral who  ^ivcs  the  orders  to-day  ;"  "I  am  the  general  who 
give  the  orders  to  day  :"  that  is,  '4,  who  give  the  orders  to- 
day, am  the  general.'' 

When  the  relative  and  the  verb  have  been  determined  to 
agree  with  either  of  the  preceding  nominatives,  that  agree- 
ment must  be  preserved  throughout  the  sentence;  as  in  the 
following  instance:  "I  am  tl.p  Lord  that  makiih  all  things; 
that  strctcluth  forth  the  heavens  ^lone."    Isaiah  xliv.  24. 


Rule  8.]  SYNTAX.  145 

Thus  far  is  consistent :  The  Lord,  in  the  third  person,  is  the 
antecedent,  and  the  verb  agrees  with  the  relative  in  the 
third  person  :  *'I  am  the  Lord,  which  Lord,  or  he  that  tnakcth 
all  thiriL^s."  If  1  were  made  the  antecedent,  the  relative 
and  verh  should  agree  with  it  in  the  tirst  person  :  as,  "1  am 
the  Lord,  that  make  all  things,  that  stretch  forth  the  heavens 
alone."  But  should  it  follow,  ''That  sprcadcth  8ihrosn\  the 
earth  hy  mysilf,"  there  would  arise  a  confusion  of  persons, 
and  ix  manifest  solecism. 


RULE  VIIL 

Every  adjective,  and  every  adjective  pro- 
noun,  belongs  to  a  substantive,  expressed  or 
understood:  as,  "He  is  a  good^  as  well  as  a  wise 
mrmy^  "Few  are  happy ;'^''  that  is,  "persons:'''^ 
"This  is  a  pleasant  walk ;"  that  is,  "This  walk 
is^^''  &c. 

Adjective  pronouns  must  agree  in  number, 
with  their  substantives:  as,  '^This  book,  these 
books ;  that  sort,  those  sorts ;  another  road, 
other  roads/' 

L     ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

A  few  instances  of  the  breach  of  this  rule  are  here  exhib- 
ited, 'I  have  not  travelled  this  twenty  years ;'  '•these  twen- 
ty.' *I  am  not  recommending  these  kind  of  sufferings;' 
Hhis  kind.'  'Those  set  of  books  was  a  valuable  present ;' 
Hhat  set.' 

L  The  word  means^  in  the  singular  number,  and  the  phra- 
ses, "-By  this  tneans^  'By  that  means ^  are  used  by  our  best 
and  most  correct  writers;  namely.  Bacon,  Tillotson,  Atter- 
bury,  Addison,  Steele,  Pope,  &c.*       They  are,  indeed,  in 

*  "B.V  this  means  he  had  them  the  more  at  vantage,  being  tired  and  harassed  with  a 
long  march  "  Bacon. 

"Si/ f/iw  rncon^  one  great  restraint  from  doing  evil,  would  be  taken  away  "—And 
this  is  an  admirable  means  to  improve  men  in  virtue/'  "5^  that  means  they  have 
rendered  their  duty  more  difficult."  Tillotson^ 

N 


146  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  8. 

ao  general  and  approved  use»  that  it  would  appear  aukward, 
if  not  affected,  to  apply  the  old  singular  form,  and  say  'By 
this  mean;  by  that  mean;  it  was  by  a  fnean ;  although  it  is 

more  agreeable  to  the  general  analogy  of  the  language.' 

*The  word  means  (says  Priestly)  belongs  to  the  class  of  words 
which  do  not  change  their  termination  on  account  of  num- 
ber; for  it  is  used  alike  in  both  numl>ers.' 

The  word  amends,  is  used  in  this  manner  in  the  following 
sentences  :  'Though  he  did  not  succeed,  he  gained  the  ap- 
probation of  his  country  ;  and  with  this  amends  he  was  con- 
tent.' *Peace  of  mind  is  an  honorable  amends  for  the  sac- 
rifices of  interest.'  *In  return  he  received  the  thanks  of  his 
employers,  and  the  present  of  a  large  estate :  these  were 
aiT/ple  amends  for  all  his  labors.'  'We  have  described  the 
rewards  of  vice:  the  good  man's  ametids  are  of  a  different 
nature.' 

It  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  that  this  word  am^'n^^  (like 
the  word  means)  had  formerly  its  correspondent  form  in  the 
singular  number,  as  it  is  derived  from  the  French  amende, 
though  now  it  is  exclusively  established  in  the  plural  form. 
If  therefore  it  be  alleged  that  mecLti  should  be  applied  in 
the  singular,  because  it  is  derived  from  the  French  moyen, 
the  same  kind  of  argument  may  be  advanced  in  favor  of  the 

•*It  renders  us  careless  of  approving  ourselves  to  God,  and  by  that  meant  securing 
the  continuance  of  his  goodness."  "  A  good  character,  when  established,  should  not 
be  rested  in  as  an  end,  but  employed  as  a  means  of  doing  still  further  good." 

Atterburjf. 
*'flV  tkis  means  they  are  happy  in  each  other."      ''He  by  that  means  preserves  his 
superiority.  AdMiton. 

*'Your  vanity  fc^  tMs  meant  will  want  its  food."  Steele. 

•'flv  this  means  alone,  their  greatest  obstacle  will  vanish."  Pope. 

♦'Which  custom  has  proved  the  most  effectual  meant  to  ruin  the  nobles."     Swift. 
♦'There  is  no  wjean*  of  escaping  the  persecution."      "Faith  is  not  only  aincanj  of 
obeying,  but  a  principal  act  of  obedience."  iJr.  Young. 

«»He  looked  on  oaon^y  as  a  necessary  meant  of  maintaining  and  increasing  power.'* 

Lord  Littleton's  Henry  If. 
"John  was  too  much  intimidated  npt  to  embrace  every  means  afforded  for  his  safe- 
ty." Goldsmith. 
"Lest  (^ij  irwan*  should  fail."     "Bv  means  of  shif-monty^iht  late  king,"&c. 
♦♦The  on/.y  means  of  securing  a  durable  peace."  ({ume. 
*'Bjf  this  means  there  was  nothing  left  to  the  Parliament  of  Ireland,"  i&-c. 

Blackttone. 
*'By  this  means  so  many  slavgs  escaped  out  of  the  hands  of  their  masters." 

Dr.  Robertson. 

*^By  this  means  they  bear  witness  to  each  other."  Burke. 

**By  this  mrans  the  wrath  of  man  was  made  to  turn  against  itself."  Dr.  Blair. 

♦♦A  magazine,  which  has  by  Mi*  T/icanj  contained,"  8ic.      "Birds,  in  general,  pro 

?»urcthelr  fgoUby  OTcanf  oftheir  fr<«*."  Ur.fMlfjf 


Rules.]  SYNTAX.  14V 

s'mguU?  amende  ;  and  the  general  analogy  of  the  language 
'  may  also  be  pleaded  in  support  of  it. 

Campbell,  in  his  'Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,'  has  the  follow- 
ing remark  on  the  subject  before  us :  'No  persons  of  taste 
will,  I  presume,  venture  so  far  to  violate  the  present  usage, 
and  consequently  to  shock  the  ears  of  the  generality  of  read- 
ers, as  to  say,  'By  this  meaji,  by  that  mcan.^ 

Lowth  and  Johnson  seem  to  he  against  the  use  of  mean* 
in  the  singular  number.  They  do  not,  however,  speak  de- 
cisively on  the  point;  but  rather  dubiously,  and  as  if  they 
knew  that  they  were  questioning  eminent  authorities,  as  well 
as  general  practice.  That  they  were  not  decidedly  against 
the  application  cf  this  word  to  the  singular  number,  appears 
from  their  own  language:  < Whole  sentences,  whether  sim- 
ple or  compound,  may  become  members  of  other  sentenceB 
by  means  of  some  additional  connexion.^ Dr.  Lowth's  In- 
troduction to  English  Grammar, 

♦There  is  no  other  method  of  teaching  that  of  which  any 
one  is  ignorant,  but  by  means  of  something  already  known/ 
—Dr.  Johnson.     Idler. 

It  is  remarkable  that  our  present  version  of  the  scriptures 
makes  no  use,  as  far  as  the  compiler  can  discover,  of  the 
%vord  mean  ;  though  there  are  several  instances  to  be  found 
in  it  of  the  use  of  means^  in  the  sense  and  connexion  con- 
tended for.  'By  this  means  thou  shalt  have  no  portion  on 
this  side  the  river.'  Ezra  iv.  16.  'That  by  means  of  deathy 
&c.  Heb.  ix.  15.  It  will  scarcely  be  pretended,  that  the 
translators  of  the  sacred  volumes  did  not  r  *.  urately  under» 
8tand  the  English  language ;  or  that  they  would  have  ad- 
mitted one  form  of  this  word,  and  rejected  the  other,  had  not 
their  determination  been  conformable  to  the  best  usage. — = 
An  attempt  therefore  to  recover  an  old  word,  so  long  since 
disused  by  the  most  correct  writers,  seems  not  likely  to  be 
successful ;  especially  as  the  rejection  of  it  is  not  attended 
with  any  inconvenience. 

The  practice  of  the  best  and  most  correct  writers,  or  a 
great  majority  of  them,  corroborated  by  genera!  usage,  forms, 
during  its  continuance,  the  standard  of  language ;  especial- 
ly if,  in  particular  instances,  this  practice  continue,  after  ob- 
jection and  due  consideration.  Every  connexion  and  ap- 
plication of  words  and  prases,  thus  supported,  must  therefore 


148  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  8. 

be  proper,  and  entitled  to  respect,  if  not  exceptionable  in  a 
moral  point  of  view. 


-**Si  vofet  iisns 


*'Quem  penes  arbitriura  est,  et  jus,  et  norma  loquendi.*'  Hor. 

On  this  principle,  many  forms  of  expression,  not  less  de- 
viating from  the  general  analogy  of  the  language  than  those 
before  mentioned,  are  to  be  considered  as  strictly  proper  and 
justifiable.  Of  this  kind  are  the  following.  'None  o(  them 
arc  varied  to  express  the  gender :  and  yet  none  originally 
signified  no  one.^  *He  himself  shall  do  the  work  :'  here, 
what  was  at  first  appropriated  to  (he  objective,  is  now  prop- 
erly used  as  the  nominative  case.  ^You  have  behaved 
yourselves  well:'  in  this  example,  the  word  you  is  put  in 
the  nominative  case  plural,  with  strict  propriety ;  tliough 
formerly  it  was  confined  to  the  objective  case,  Q.n(\  t/e  exclu- 
sively used  for  the  nominative. 

With  respect  to  anomalies  and  variations  of  language, 
thus  established,  it  is  the  grammarian's  business  to  sulimit, 
not  to  remonstrate.  In  pertinaciously  opposing  the  decision 
of  proper  antbority,  and  contending  for  obsolete  modes  of 
expression,  he  may  indeed  disjilay  learning  and  critical  sa- 
gacity, and,  in  some  degree,  ol)scure  points  that  are  suffi- 
ciently clear  and  decided ;  but  he  cannot  reasonably  hope, 
either  to  succeed  in  his  aims,  or  to  assist  the  learner  in  dis- 
covering and  respecting  the  true  standard  principles  of  lan- 
guage. 

Cases  wbich  oustora  has  left  dubious,  are  certainly  within 
tbe  grammarian's  province.  Here  he  may  reason  and  re- 
monstrate on  the  ground  of  derivation,  analogy,  and  propri- 
ety ;  and  his  reasonings  may  refine  and  improve  the  lan- 
guage: but  when  authority  speaks  out  and  decides  the  point, 
it  were  per[)etually  to  unsettle  the  language,  to  admit  of  ca- 
vil and  debate.  '  Anomalies  then,  un^ler  the  limitation  men- 
ioned,  become  the  law,  as  clearly  as  the  plainest  analogies. 

The  reader  will  perceive  that,  in  the  following  sentences, 
tbe  use  of  the  word  7nean  in  the  old  form,  has  a  very  uncouth 
appearance:  'By  the  nu:a?i  of  adversity  we  are  often  in- 
structed.' 'He  preserves  his  health  by  tnean  of  exercise." 
Frngality  is  oho  ynran  of  acquiring  a  competency.'     They 


H^LE  8.)  SYNTAX.  149 

should  be,  "Bj  means  of  a(Wersity,"  &:c.  "By  means  o^ ex- 
ercise,"  Sec.     "Frugality  is  one  mcans^^  &c. 

Good  writers  do  indeed  make  use  of  the  substantive  ??2can 
in  the  singular  number,  and  in  that  number  only,  to  signify 
mediocrity,  middle  rate,  &c.  as,  "This  is  B^inean  between  the 
two  extremes."  But  in  the  sense  of  instrumentality,  it  has 
been  long  disused  by  the  best  authors,  and  by  almost  every 
writer. 

This  means  and  thai  means  shouhl  be  used  only  when  they 
refer  to  what  is  singular ;  these  means  and  those  means,  when 
tbey  respect  plurals:  as,  ^4ie  lived  temperately,  and  by 
this  means  preserved  his  health  ;"  "The  scholars  were  atten- 
tive, industrious,  and  obedient  to  their  tutors  ;  and  by  these 
means  acquired  knowledjre." 

We  have  enlarged  on  this  article,  that  the  young  student 
may  be  led  to  reflect  on  a  point  so  important,  as  that  of  uS- 
certaining  the  standard  of  pro{)rie{y  in  the  use  of  language. 

2.  When  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of  in  a  sen- 
tence, and  there  is  occasion  to  mention  them  again  for  the 
sake  of  distinction,  that  is  used  in  reference  to  the  forr^K  r, 
and  this  in  reference  to  the  latter:  as,  "Self-love,  which  is 
the  spring  of  action  in  the  soul,  is  ruled  by  reason :  but  for 
that>  man  would  be  inactive ;  and  but  for  this,  he  would  be 
active  to  no  end." 

3.  The  distributive  adjective  pronouns,  each,  tvery,  either^ 
agree  with  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  of  the  singular 
number  only  :  as,  "The  king  of  Israel,  and  Jehoshaphat,  the 
king  of  Judah,  sat  each  on  his  throne  ;"  ''Every  tree  is  known 
by  its  fruit :"  unless  the  plural  noun  convey  a  collective  idea : 

as,  "Every  six  months  ;"  "Every  hundred  years  " The 

following  phrases,  are  exceptionable.  "Let  each  esteem 
others  bettei'  than  themselves :"  It  ought  to  be  ''himsclf,^^ 
"It  is  requisite  that  the  language  should  be  both  perspicuous 
and  correct :  in  proportion  as  cither  of  these  two  qualities 
are  wanting,  the  language  is  imperfect  :"  it  should  be,  "i^." 
"'Tis  observable,  that  every  one  of  the  letters  bear  date  after 
his  banishment,  and  contain  a  complete  narrative  of  all  his 
s^ory  afterwards  ;"  it  ought  to  be  ''bears''  and  'Hheij  contain^'' 

N  2 


150  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  fEuLE  S, 

Either  is  often  used  improperly,  instead  of  each  :  as,  "The 
king  of  Israel  and  Jehoshaphat  the  king  of  Judah,  sat  either 
of  them  on  his  throne;"  "Nadab  and  Abihu,  the  sons  of 
Aaron,  took  either  of  them  his  censer."  Each  signifies  both 
of  them  taken  distinctly  or  separately  :  either  properly  signi- 
fies only  the  one  or  the  other  of  them  taken  disjunctively. 

In  the  course  of  this  work,  some  examples  will  appear  of 
erroneous  translations  from  the  Holy  Scriptures,  with  respect 
to  grammatical  construction ;  but  it  may  be  proper  to  re- 
mark, that  notwithstanding  these  verbal  mistakes,  the  Bible, 
for  the  size  of  it,  is  the  most  accurate  grammatical  com[)o- 
sition  that  we  have  in  the  English  language.  The  authori- 
ty of  several  eminent  grammarians  might  be  adduced  in  sup- 
port of  this  a'ssertion;  but  it  may  be  sufficient  to  mention 
only  tliat  of  Dr.  Lowth,  who  says,  "The  present  translation 
of  the  Bible,  is  the  best  standard  of  the  English  language."^ 


II.  ADJECTIVES. 


4.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  improperly  applied  as  ad- 
verbs :  as,  "indifferent  hontst;  excellent  well,-  miserable 
poor;"  instead  of  "indifferently  honest;  excellently  well ; 
miserably  poor."  "He  behaved  himself  conformable  to  that 
great  example;"  *' conformably,^^  "Endeavor  to  live  here- 
after suitable  to  a  person  in  thy  station,"  '^suitably  ;"  "I  can 
never  think  so  very  mean  of  him  ;"  ^^meanly,^"*  "He  des- 
cribes this  river  agreeable  to  the  common  reading ;"  ^'agree- 
ably."^"^  "As:reeable  to  my  promise,  I  now  write  :"  ''^agree- 
ably^'* "Thy  exceeding  great  reward  :"  When  united  to  an 
a<ljective,or  adverb  not  ending  in  /t/,  the  word  exceeding  \\2i^ 
Zt/ added  to  it :  is,  "exceedingly  dreadful,  exceedingly  great;" 
•'exceedingly  well,  exceedingly  more  active  :"  but  when  it 
is  joined  to  an  adverb  or  adjective,  having  that  termination, 
the /i/  is  omitted:  as,  "Some  men  think  exceeding  clearly, 
and  reason  exceeding  forcibly ;"  "She  appeared,  on  this  oc- 
casion, exceeding  lovely."  "He  acted  in  the  business  holder 
than  was  expected  :"  "They  behaved  the  noblest^  because 
they  were  disinterested."     Tbey  should  have  been,  '^more 


Rule  8.)  SYNTAX.  151 

boldly  ;  most  nobly. "^^—^T he  adjective  pronoun  such  is  often 
misapplied :  as,  "He  was  such  an  extravagant  yountr  man, 
that  he  spent  bis  whole  patrimony  in  a  few  years  :"  it  should 
be,  "50  extravagant  a  young  man,^^  "I  never  befor*-  saw  such 
large  trees  :"  ^'saw  trees  so  large,^^  When  we  refer  to  the 
species  or  nature  oPh  thing,  the  word  such  is  properly  ap- 
plied :  as,  "Such  a  temper  is  seldom  found  :  hut  when  de- 
gree is  signified,  we  use  the  word  so  :  as,  "So  bad  a  temper 
is  seldom  found." 

Adverbs  are  likewise  improperly  used  as  adjectives  :  as, 
"The  tutor  addressed  him  in  terms  rather  warm,  but  suita- 
bly to  his  offence;"  ''^ suitable.^''  "They  were  seen  wander- 
ing about  solitarily  and  distressed;"  '''•solitary,'''*  "He  lived 
in  a  manner  agreeably  to  the  dictates  of  reason  and  religion;" 
^^ agreeable.''^  "The  study  of  syntax  should  be  previously  to 
that  of  punctuation  :"  '•'previous.^''* 

5.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  be  a  void- 
ed :  such  as,  "A  worser  comiuct;"  "On  lesser  hopes  ;"  "A 
more  serener  tem[»er;"  "The  most  straitest  sect ;"  "A  more 
superior  work."  "They  should  be,  "Worse  conduct ;"  "less 
hopes;"  "a  more  serene  temper  ;"  "the  straitest  sect ;"  "a 
superior  work." 

6.  Adjectives  that  have  in  themselves  a  superlative  signi- 
fication, do  not  properly  admit  of  the  superlative  or  com- 
parative form  superadded  ;  such  as,  "Chief,  extreme,  per- 
fect, right,  universal,  supreme,"  &c.  which  are  sometimes 
improperly  written,  "Chiefest,  extremest,  perfectest,  right- 
est,  most  universal,  most  supreme,"  &c.  The  following  ex- 
pressions are  therefore  improper.  "He  sometimes  claims 
admission  to  the  chiefest  offices."  "The  quarrel  became  so 
universal  SLud  national :"  "A  method  of  attaining  the  righte^t 
and  greatest  happiness."  The  phrases,  so  perfect,  so  right, 
so  extreme,  so  universal,  &c.  are  incorrect ;  because  they 
imply  that  one  thing  is  less  perfect,  less  extreme,  &c.  thaa 
another,  which  is  not  possible. 

*  For  the  rule  to  determiiie,  whether  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  is  to  be  used,  see 
Eoglish  Exercises.    Ekvmih  edition,  page  1 13. 


152  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  Rlle  8.) 

7.  Inaccuracies  are  often  found  in  the  way  in  \vhich  the 
degrees  of  comparison  are.  applied  and  constructed.  The 
following  are  exaraples  of  wrong  construction  in  this  res- 
pect :  'This  noble  nation  hath,  of  all  others,  admitted  few- 
er corruptions.'  The  word  fencr  is  here  construed  precise- 
ly as  if  it  were  the  superlatiye.  It  should  be,  'This  noble 
nation  hath  admitted  fewer  corruptions  than  any  other.' 
We  commonly  say,  'This  is  the  weaker  of  the  two  ;'  or, 
'The  weakest  of  the  two  :'  but  the  former  is  (he  regular 
mode  of  expression,  because  there  are  only  two  things  com- 
pared. 'The  voice  of  covctousness  is  whi.t  enlers  deepest 
into  the  soul  of  any  others.'  'He  celebrates  the  church  of 
England  as  the  most  perfect  of  all  others.'  Both  these 
mo(k8  of  expression  are  faulty  :  we  sltould  not  say,  'The 
b<st  of  any  man,'  or,  'The  best  of  any  other  man,'  for 
'the  best  of  men.'  The  sentences  may  be  corrected  by 
snbstitutinc^  the  comparative  in  (he  rcom  of  the  superhitive. 
'The  vice,  <fcc.  is  what  enters  deeper  into  the  soul  than  any 
other.'  'He  celebrates,  A.c.  as  more  perfect  than  any  oih- 
er.'  It  is  also  possible  to  retain  the  superlative,  and  render 
the  expression  grammatical.  'Covctousness,  of  all  vices, 
enters  the  deepest  into  th*e  soul.'  'He  celebrates,  &c.  as 
the  most  perfect  of  all  churches.'  These  sentences  con- 
tain other  errors,  against  which  it  is  proj»er  to  caution  the 
learner.  '^I'he  wor<ls  dctpcr  and  dcrpcst,  being  intended  for 
adverbs>  should  have  been  tfwrc  dcrplif,  most  daply.  The 
phrases  more  perfect  and  most  perfect^  are  improper;  because 
perfection  admitsof  no  degrees  of  comparison.  We  may  say 
nearer  or  nearest  to  pe!  ft  ction,  or  more  or  less  imperfect. 

8.  In  some  cases,  a<ljectives  should  not  be  separated  from 
their  substantives,  evc.i  by  words  which  modify  their  mean- 
ing, and  make  but  one  sense  with  them  :  as,  'A  large  enough 
number  surely."  tl  should  be,  *'A  number  large  enough." 
"The  lower  sort  of  people  are  good  enough  judges  of  one 
not  very  distant  from  them," 


The  adjective  is  usually  placed   before  its  substantive : 
as,  "A  ^eweroM^  man ;"   ''How   amiable  a  woman."      The 


Rule  8.)  SYNTAX.  153 

instances  in  which  it  comes  after  the  substantive,  are  the 
following:. 

1st,  When  something  depends  upon  the  adjective;  and 
when  it  gives  a  hetter  souiul,  es;  ecially  in  poetry  :  as,  ''A 
man  generous  to  his  enemies  ;''  'Feed  me  with  food  conven- 
ient for  me;"  "A  tree  three  i'veA  Ihlck  /'  ''A  body  of  troops 
fifty  thousand  strong  :"  ''The  torreijt  {uinbling  through  rocks 
abrupt.'''' 

2d,  When  the  adjective  is  emphatical :  as,  "Alexander 
the  Great  ;"  ''Lewis  the  Bold  ;'  "Goodness  infinite  ;"  "Wis- 
dom luuearcliableP 

3d,  V.  hen  several  adjectives  belon";  to  one  substantive : 
as,  ''A  man,  just,  wise,  and  charitable  ;"  "A  woman,  modest, 
seiis'.bh  ,  and  virtuous." 

4lh,  When  the  adjective  is  preceded  by  an  adrerb  ;  as, 
"A  t;oy  regularly  studious;"  "A  girl  unaffectediy  modest." 

5th,  When  the  verb  to  be^m  any  of  its  variations,  comes, 
betv\een  a  su'  stantive  aud  an  adjective,  tiie  adjective  may 
frequently  either  precede  or  follow^  it :  as,  "The  man  is  hap- 
py ;"  or,  '■^happy  is  the  man  who  makes  virtue  his  choice  ;" 
"The  interview  was  delightful;^''  or,  ^'dcligliiful  was  the  in- 
terview." 

6th,  When  the  adjective  expresses  some  circumstances  of 
a  substantive  placed  after  an  active  verb:  as,  "Vanity  often 
renders  its  possessor  ^:'e.^'?ca/;/i'."  \-\  an  exclamatory  sen- 
tence, the  adjective  generally  [^recedes  the  substantive  ;  as, 
"How  despicable  iloes  vanity  often  render  lis  possessor!" 

There  is  sometimes  great  beauty,  as  well  as  force,  in  pla- 
cing the  adjective  before  the  verb,  and  the  substantive  im- 
mediately after  it :  as,  "Great  is  the  Lord  !  just  and  true  are 
thy  ways,  thou  King  of  saints  t" 

Sometimes  the  word  edl  is  emphatically  put  after  a  num- 
ber of  particulars  comprehended  under  it.  "Ambition,  in- 
terest, honor,fl// concurred.  Sometimes  a  substantive,  which 
likewise  comprehends  the  preceding  particulars,  is  used  in 
conjunction  with  this  adjective  :  as,  'Royalists,  republicans, 
churchmen,  sectaries,  courtiers,  patriots,  all  parties^  concur- 
red in  the  illusion." 

An  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  plural  number,  will  some- 
times properly  associate  with  a  singular  noun:  as,  "Our 


154  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  Rule  8.) 

desire,  your  intentiou,  their  resignation."  This  association 
applies  rather  to  things  of  an  intellectual  nature,  than  to 
those  which  are  corporeal.  It  forms  an  exception  to  the 
general  rule. 

A  substantive  with  its  adjective  is  reckoned  as  one  com- 
poun  I  word,  whence  they  often  take  another  adjective,  and 
sometimes  a  third,  and  so  on  :  as,  'An  old  man  ;  a  good  old 
man;  a  \ery  learned,  judicious,  good  old  man.' 

Thouixh  the  adjective  always  relates  to  a  substantive,  it 
is,  in  many  instances,  put  as  if  it  were  absolute  ;  especiidly 
where  the  noiiu  has  been  mentioned  before,  or  is  easily  un- 
derstood, ihouiih  not  expressed:  as,  *!  often  survey  the 
jrreen  fit  1 1,  as  F  am  very  foiid  of  srecn  ;'  'The  wise,  the 
\irtuou8,  the  honored,  famid,  and  srtat,'  that  is,  'persons;' 
*'lMie  twelve;'  lb  it  is,  'apostles;'  'Have  compassion  on  the 
poor:  be  feet  to  the  laim,  and  eyes  to  the  blind,'* 

Substantives  are  often  used  as  adjectives.  In  this  case, 
the  word  so  used  is  sometimes  unconnected  with  the  sub- 
stantive to  which  it  relates;  sometimes  connected  with  it 
by  a  hyphen  :  and  sometimes  joined  to  it,  so  as  to  make  the 
two  words  coalesce.  The  lota!  separation  is  proper,  whea 
either  of  the  two  words  is  long,  or  when  they  cannot  be  flu- 
ently pronounced  as  one  word :  as,  an  adjective  pronoun,  a 
silver  watch,  a  stone  cistern;  the  hyphen  is  used,  when  both 
the  words  are  short,  and  are  readily  pronounced  as  a  single 
word :  as,  coal-mine,  corn-mill,  fruit-tree  :  the  words  coa- 
lesce, when  they  are  readily  pronounced  together,  have  a 
long  established  association,  and  are  in  frequent  use  :  as, 
honeycomb,  gingerbread,  inkhorn,  Yorkshire. 

Sometimes  the  adjective  becomes  a  substantive,  and  has 
another  adjective  joined  lo  it :  as,  'The  chief  good ;'  'The 
vast  immense  of  space.' 

When  an  adjective  has  a  preposilion  before  it,  the  sub- 
stantive being  understood,  it  takes  the  nature  of  an  adverb, 
and  is  considered  as  an  aiJverb  :  as,  'In  general,  in  particu- 
lar, ID  baste,'  &o   that  is,  'Generally,  particularly,  hastily,' 


Rule  9.)  SYNTAX.  155 

Enorv  was  formerly  used  as  the  plural  of  enough;  but  is 
now  obsolete. 


RULE  IX. 

The  article  a  or  an  agrees  with  nouns  in  Ihe 
singular  number  only,  individually  or  collect- 
ively :  as,  'A  christian,  an  iniidel,  a  score,  a 
thousand.' 

The  definite  article  the  may  agree  with  nouns 
in  the  singular  and  plural  number:  as,  *The 
garden,  the  houses,  the  stars.' 

Tbe  articles  are  often  properly  omitted  : 
when  used  they  should  be  justly  applied,  ac- 
cording to  their  distinct  nature :  as,  ^Gold  is 
corrupting ;  the  sea  is  green ;  a  lion  is  bold.' 

It  is  of  the  nature  of  both  the  articles  to  determine  or 
limit  the  thing  spoken  of.  A  determines  it  to  be  one  single 
thing  of  the  kind,  leaving  it  still  uncertain  which  :  the  de- 
termines which  it  18,  or  of  many,  which  they  are. 

The  following  passage  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the 
different  uses  of  a  and  tke^  and  of  the  force  of  the  substan- 
tive without  any  article.  ^'Man  was  made  for  society,  and 
ought  to  extend  his  good  will  to  all  men  :  but  a  fyian  will 
naturally  entertain  a  more  particular  kindness  for  the  mew, 
with  whom  he  has  the  most  frequent  intercourse  ;  and  enter 
into  a  still  closer  union  with  the  man,  whose  temper  and  dis- 
position suit  best  with  his  own.' 

As  the  articles  are  aometiraes  misapplied,  it  may  be  of 
some  use  to  exhibit  a  few  instances  :  *And  I  persecuted  this 
way  unto  the  death-'  The  apostle  does  not  mean  any  pari- 
ticular  sort  ol  death,  but  death  in  general :  the  definite  nr- 
tiele  therefore  is  improperly  used:  it  ought  to  be  *unto death/ 
without  any  article. 

*When  he,  the  Spirit  of  Truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide  you 
unto  all  truth ;'  that  is,  according  to  this  translation,  'into  all 
Jruth  whatsoever,  into  truth  cl  all  kiad^ ;'  very  different 


156  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  Rule  9.) 

from  the  meanins:  of  the  evHnt^rlist,  and  from  the  orij^inal, 
'into  all  tkc  truth;'  that  is,  'into  all  evangelical  truth,  all 
truth  necessary  for  you  to  know.' 

'Who  breaks  a  butterfly  u[)on  a  v.  heel  ?'  it  ought  to  l>e  ^the 
wheel,'  used  as  an  instrument  tor  the  particular  purpose  of 
torturins;  criminals.  'The  Almiijhty  hath  g:iven  reason  to  a 
man  to  be  a  lijrht  unto  him  :'  it  should  rather  be,  'to  man,''  in 
general  'This  day  Is  s;>lvatiou  come  to  this  house,  foras- 
much as  he  also  is  the  son  of  Abraham  ;'  it  ought  to  be,  'a  son 
of  Abrahc^m.' 

These  remarks  may  serve  to  show  the  o;reat  importance 
of  the  proper  use  of  the  article,  and  the  excellence  of  the 
English  hmguage  in  this  respect;  which  by  means  of  its 
two  articles,  does  not  precisely  determine  the  extent  of  sig- 
nification of  common  names. 

1.  A  nice  distinction  of  the  sense  is  sometimes  made  by 
the  use  or  omission  of  the  article  a.  If  1  say  ;  ^He  behav- 
ed with  a  little  reverencr  ;'  my  meaning  is  positive.  If  I 
say,  'lie  behaved  with  little  reverence;'  my  menningis  neg^ 
ative.  And  these  two  arc  by  no  means  the  same,  or  to  be 
used  in  the  same  cases.  Fy  the  former,  1  rather  praise  a 
p*  rson  ;  by  the  latter,  I  disjTaise  him.  For  the  sake  of  this 
distinction,  which  is  a  xtry  useful  one,  we  may  belter  bear 
the  seeming  impropriety  oi  ibv  article  a  before  nouns  of  num- 
ber. When  I  say,  'There  were  few  men  with  me;'  i  speak 
diminutively,  and  mean  to  represent  them  as  inconsidera- 
ble :  uhereas,  when  1  say,  'There  were  a  few  meu  wiih 
him;   I  evidently  intend  to  mike  the  most  of  them. 

2.  In  general,  it  may  be  gutricent  to  |)refix  the  article  to 
the  former  of  the  l^i^owords  in  lb*  same  construction;  though 
the  French  never  fail  to  repeat  it  in  this  case. 

'Tlipre  were  many  hours,  both  of  the  nis^ht  and  day, 
which  he  could  spend,  without  8ug[»icion,  in  solitary  thought.* 
It  might  have  been  *  of  the  night  and  of  ihf  day.'  And  for 
the  SJ»ke  of  emphasis,  we  often  repeat  the  article  in  a  series 
of  e[>ithet8.  'He  hoped  that  this  tiile  would  secure  him  an 
ample  and  an  independent  authority.' 

3.  In  common  conversation,  and  in  familiar  style,  we  fre- 
quently omit  the  articles,  which  might  be  inserted  with  pro- 
priety in  writing,  especially  in  a  grave  style,    iAt  worsts 


UuLE  10.)  SYNTAX.  157 

time  mighl  be  gained  by  this  expedient.'  *A(  the  worst,' 
would  have  been  l)e{ter  in  this  place.  'Give  nie  here  John 
Baptist's  head.'  There  woukl  have  been  more  dignity  in 
sayifig,  'John  the  Baptist's  head  5'  or,  'The  head  of  John  the 
Baptist." 


The  article  the  has  sometimes  a  good  effect  in  distlng:nish- 
ing  a  person  by  an  epithet.  'In  the  fiistory  of  Henry  the 
fourth,  by  Father  Daniel,  we  are  surfmsed  at  not  finding  him 
the  great  man.'  'I  own  I  am  often  surprised  that  he  should 
have  treated  so  coklly,  a  man  so  much  the  genth^man.' 

This  article  is  often  elegantly  put,  after  the  manner  of 
the  French,  for  the  pronoun  possessive:  as,  'He  'ooKs  him 
full  in  the  face;'  that  is,  *in  his  face.'  'In  his  presc  nee  (hey 
were  to  strike  the  forehead  on  the  ground  :'  that  is,  Hheir  Jvrc^ 
heads.'' 

We  sometimes,  according  to  the  French  manner,  repeat 
the  same  article,  when  the  adjective,  on  account  of  any  clause 
depending  upon  it,  is  put  after  the  substantive.  'Of  all  the 
considerable  governments  among  the  Alj)s,  a  commonwealth 
is  a  constitution  the  most  adapted  of  any  to  the  poverty  of 
those  countries.'  'With  such  asjjecious  tit?e  as  that  of  blood, 
wMiich  with  the  multitude  is  always  a  claim,  the  stronpf^st, 
and  the  most  easily  comprehended.'  'They  ^re  not  the  men 
in  the  nation  the  most  difficult  to  be  replaced." 

RULE  X. 

One  substantive  governs  another,  si^jnifying 
a  different  thing,  in  the  possessive  or  genitive 
case  :  as,  'My  father's  house;'  'Man's  happi- 
ness ;'  'Virtue's  reward.' 

When  the  annexed  substantive  signifies  the  same  thing  as 
the  first,  there  is  no  variation  of  c^se :  as,  'George,  king  of 
Great  Britain,  elector  of  Hanover,' to.  ;  'Pompey  contend- 
ed with  Caesar,  the  gre-itesf  eeo^ral  ol  h^s  time;'  'Religion, 
Uie  support  of  adversity,  adorns  prosperity.'  Nouns  thuaf 
O 


15]  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  10. 

circumstanced  are  said  to  be  in  apposition  to  each  other. 
The  interposition  of  a  relative  and  verb  will  sometimes 
break  the  construction  :  as,  *Pompey  contended  with  Caesnr, 
who  was  the  greatest  general  of  bis  time.'  Here  the  word 
general  is  in  the  nominative  case,  governed  by  note  4,  un* 
der  Rule  xi. 

The  preposition  o/*  joined  to  a  substantive,  is  not  always 
equivalent  to  the  possessive  case.  It  is  only  so,  when  the 
expression  can  be  converted  into  the  regular  form  of  the 
possessive  case.  We  can  say,  'The  reward  of  virtue,'  and 
•Virtue's  reward  :'  but  though  it  is  proper  to  saj-,  *A  crown  of 
gold,'  we  cannot  convert  the  expression  into  the  possessive 
case,  and  say,  'Gold's  crown.' 

Substantives  govern  pronouns  as  well  as  nouns,  in  the 
possessive  case  :  ns,  'Everj^  tree  is  knovvrt  by  its  fruit  ; 
'Goodness  brings  its  reward  ;'  'That  desk  is  7nine,^ 

The  genitive  its  is  often  improperly  used  for  ''tis  or  it  is : 
as,  'Its  my  book.' 

The  pronoun  his^  when  detached  from  the  noun  to  which 
it  rehtes,  is  to  be  coisiderc d,  not  as  a  possessive  pronoun, 
but  MS  the  genitive  case  of  the  personal  pronown :  as, 'This 
composition  is /i/V  'Whose  book  is  that  ?' 'Hz^.'  If  we 
used  the  noun  itself,  we  should  s;»y,  'this  composition  is 
John's.'  'Whose  book  is  that  V  'Eliza's.'  The  position  will 
be  still  more  evident,  when  we  consider  that  both  the  pro- 
nouns in  the  following  sentence,  must  have  a  similar  con- 
struction :  'Is  \i  her  OT  his  1  oiiour  that  is  tarnished?'  'li  is 
not  hers,  but  his,' 

Sometimes  a  substantive  in  the  genitive  or  possessive  case 
stands  alone,  the  latter  one  by  which  it  is  governed  being 
understood  :  ns,  '1  called  at  the  bookseller's,'  that  is,  'at  the 
bookseller's  shop.' 

1.  If  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  genitive  case, 
the  apostrophe  with  s  is  annexed  to  the  last,  and  understood 
to  the  rest :  as,  'John  and  Eliza's  books :'  'This  was  my  fa- 
ther, mother  and  uncle's  advice.'  But  when  any  words  in- 
tervene, perhaps  on  account  of  the  increased  pause,  the  sign 
of  the  possessive  should  be  annexed  to  each  :  as,  'They  ara 


Rule  10.)  SYNTAX.  159 

John's  as  well  as  Eliza's  books ;'  'I  had  the  physician's,  the 
surgeon's,  and  the  apothecary's  assistance." 

2.  In  poetry,  the  additional  s  is  frequently  omitted,  but 
the  apostrophe  retained,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  substan- 
tives of  the  plural  numljer  ending  in  s :  as,  'The  wrath  of 
P<  bus'  son.'  This  seems  not  so  allowable  in  prose;  which 
the  follov^ing  erroneous  examples  will  demonstrate  :  'Mosts' 
minister ;'  Phinehas'  wife  :'  *Feslus  came  into  Felix'  room;' 
*These  answers  were  made  to  the  witness'  question.'  But 
in  casts  which  would  give  too  much  of  the  hissing  sound, 
or  increase  the  difficulty  of  pronunciation,  the  omission  takes 
place  even  in  prose:  as,  'For  righteousness'  sake;'  Tor 
conscience'  sake.' 

3.  Little  explanatory  circumstances  are  particularly  awk- 
ward between  a  genitive  case,  and  the  word  which  usually 
follows  it :  as,  'She  began  to  extol  the  farmer's,  as  she  called 
him,  excellent  understanding.'  It  ought  to  be  'the  excellent 
understanding  of  the  farmer,  as  she  called  him.' 

4.  When  a  sentence  consists  of  terms  signifying  a  name 
and  an  office,  or  any  expressions  by  which  one  part  is  dts- 
€ri{)tiveor  explanatory  of  the  other,  it  may  occasion  some 
doubt  to  which  of  them  the  sign  ol  the  genitive  case  should 
be  annexed;  or  whether  it  should  be  subjoined  to  them  both. 
Thus,  some  would  say  ;  'I  left  the  parcel  at  Smith's  the 
bookseller ;'  others,  'at  Smith  the  bookseller's;'  and  perhaps 
others,  'at  Smith's  the  bookseller's.'  The  first  of  these 
forms  is  most  agreeable  to  the  English  idiom  ;  and  if  the  ad- 
dition consists  of  two  or  more  words,  the  case  seems  to  be 
less  dubious;  as, 'I  left  the  parcel  at  Smith's,  the  bookseller 
and  stationer.'  Fut  as  this  suln'ect  requires  a  little  further 
explanation  to  make  it  intelligible  to  the  learners,  we  shaH 
add  a  few  observations  tending  to  unfold  its  principles. 

A  phrase  in  which  the  words  are  so  connected  and  depen- 
dent, as  to  admit  of  no  pause  betbre  the  conclusion,  necessa- 
rily requires  the  genitive  sign  at  or  r.^ar  the  end  of  the 


lee  ENGLISH  GRAIVIMAR.  (Rule  10. 

phrase  :  as,  'Whose  prerogative  is  it  ?  It  is  the  king  of  Great 
Britain's;'  'That  is  the  duke  of  Bridgewater's  canal ;'  'The 
bishop  of  Land'.ilf's  excellent  book  ;'  'I'he  Lord  mayor  of 
London's  authority  ;'  'The  captain  of  the  guard's  house.' 

When  V,  ords  in  apposition  follow  each  other  in  quick  suc- 
^sion,  it  S(^enis  also  most  agreeable  to  our  idicim,  to  give 
tht-  sign  of  the  genitive  a  similar  situation;  es;  ecially  if  the 
noun  whvh  governs  llie  genitive  l;e  expressed  :  as,  *The 
ernperor  Leopold's ;'  'Dion} sins  tl:e  tyrant's;'  'For  David 
my  servanVs  Bkki  ;''  Giv(  me  John  tbe  BrjtiafsYie'Ml;''  Ti.nl 
the  aposUes  advice.'  Fut  vhen  a  pause  is  |  roper  and  tie 
governing  noun  not  expressed;  tnd  v>l!en  the  latter  part  of 
the  sentence  is  extended  ;  it  ai^pe^rs  to  be  requ  site  that  tl  e 
sign  should  te  applied  to  the  first  genitive  and  unders  ood 
to  the  other;  as,  'I  reside  at  lord  Stormonl's,  my  old  patron 
and  benefactor;'  'Whose  glory  did  he  emulate  ?  He  emula- 
ted CspSiir's,  the  greatest  general  ot  antiquity.'  In  the  fol- 
lowing sentences,  it  would  be  very  avkward  to  place  the 
sign,  either  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  clauses,  or  at  the  end 
of  the  latter  one  alone  :  'These  psalms  are  David's,  the  king, 
priest,  and  prophet  (  f  the  Jewish  people  ;'  'We  staid  a  month 
at  lord  Lyttlelon's,  tlie  orrinunt  oi  his  country,  and  the 
friend  of  every  virtue.'  The  sign  of  the  genitive  cast  may 
very  properly  he  understood  at  the  end  of  these  members, 
an  illipsis  at  the  latter  part  of  sentences  being  a  common 
construction  in  our  language  ;  as  the  learner  will  see  by  one 
or  two  examples  :  'They  wished  to  su'mit,  but  he  did 
not;'  that  is,  'he  did  not  wish  to  siihnit i  'He  said  it  was 
their  concern,  but  not  his  ;'  that  is,  'mi  his  concern,^ 

If  we  annex  the  sign  of  the  genitive  to  the  end  of  the  Irst 
clause  only,  we  shall  p»erceivf'  that  a  resting  place  is  wanted, 
and  that  the  connecting  circamstance  is  placed  too  remote- 
ly, to  De  either  perspicuous  or  agreeable:  as,  'Whose  glory- 
did  he  emulate  V  'he  emulated  Ca:sar,  the  greatest  general 
of  antiquity's ;'  'Tht^^se  psalms  are  David,  the  kirg,  priest, 
«nd  prophet  of  the  Jewish  'peoph\^.^  It  is  much  better  to 
Si»y,  'This  is   PaiiVs  advice,   the  christicn  hero,  atid  great 


KuLE  10.)  SYNTAX.  161 

apostle  of  the  gentilrs,'  than,  'This  is  Paul,  the  christian 
hero,  and  great  apostle  of  the  gc?iiiles'  aiivice.'  On  the 
other  hand,  the  application  of  the  genitive  sign  to  {  oth  or 
all  of  the  nouns  in  apposition,  would  be  generally  harsh  and 
displeasing,  and  perhaps  in  some  cases  incorrect:  as,  'The 
emperor's  Leopold's  ;'  'King's  Georges;'  'Charles's  the  sec- 
ond's ;'  'The  parcel  vas  left  at  Smith's  the  bookseller's  and 
stationer's.'  The  rules  which  we  have  endeavoured  to  elu- 
cidate, will  prevent  the  inconvenience  of  both  these  modes 
of  expiession;  and  they  appear  to  be  simple,  perspicuous, 
and  consistent  with  the  idiom  of  the  language. 


5.  The  English  genitive  has  often  an  unpleasant  sound  J 
so  that  we  daily  make  more  use  of  the  particle  of  to  express 
the  same  relation.  There  is  something  awkward  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences,  in  which  this  method  has  not  been  taken. 
^The  general,  in  the  army's  name,  puhlishtd  a  declaration.' 
*The  common's  vote.'  'The  Lord's  house.'  'Unless  he  is 
very  ignorant  of  th^  kingdom's  condition.'  It  were  certain- 
]}'  better  to  say,  'In  the  name  of  the  army  ;'  'The  votes  of 
the  commons  ;'  'The  house  of  Lords;'  'The  condition  of  the 
kingdom.'  It  is  also  rather  harsh  to  use  two  English  geni- 
tives wi:h  the  srme  substantive;  as,  'whom  he  acqiiamfed 
with  the  i.ope's  and  the  king's  pleasure.'  'The  pleasure  of 
the  pope  and  the  king,'  would  have  been  better. 


We  sometimes  meet  with  three  substantives  dependent  on 
one  another  and  com^ected  by  the  pre})Osition  of  applied  to 
each  of  them  :  as,  'The  severity  of  the  distress  of  the  son  of 
the  king,  touched  the  nation;'  but  this  mode  of  expression 
is  not  to  be  recommended.  It  would  be  better  to  say,  'The 
severe  distress  of  the  king's  son,  touched  the  nation.'  We 
have  a  striking  instance  of  this  laborious  mode  of  expres- 
sion in  the  following  sentence  :  'G/some  of  the  books  o/ 
each  of  these  classes  cf  literature,  a  catalogiie  wiii  be  given 
at  the  end  of  the  work.' 

o2 


162  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [RtLE  10. 

C.  In  some  cases,  we  use  both  the  genitive  termination 
snd  the  preposition  of ;  as,  'It  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac 
Kewton's.'  Sometimes,  indeed,  unless  ue  throw  the  sen- 
tence into  another  form,  this  method  is  absolutely  necessa- 
ry, in  order  to  distinguish  the  sense,  and  to  give  the  idea  of 
property  strictly  so  called,  which  is  the  most  iniportant  of 
the  relations  expressed  by  the  genitive  case  :  for  the  expres- 
sions, 'This  picture  of  my  friend,'  and  'This  picture  of  my 
friend's,'  suggest  very  diilerent  ide/^s.  Tlie  latter  only  is 
that  of  property  in  the  strictest  st  nse.  The  idea  would, 
doubtless,  be  conveyed  in  a  better  manner,  by  saying,  'ThiS 
picture  belonging  to  my  friend.' 

When  this  double  genitive,  ns  some  grammarians  term  it, 
is  not  necessary  to  distinguish  the  sense,  and  especially  in  a 
j»rave  style,  it  is  generally  omitted.  Except  to  |»revent  am- 
biguity, it  seems  to  be  allowable  only  in  cases  which  sup- 
^)Ose  the  existence  of  a  plurality  of  subjects  of  the  same 
kind.  In  the  expressions,  *A  subject  (►f  the  emperor's;' 
'A  sentiment  of  my  brother's;'  more  than  one  subject,  and 
one  sentiment,  are  supposed  to  belong  to  the  possessor.  Kut 
when  this  plurality  is  neither  intimated,  nor  necessarily  sup- 
posed, the  double  genitive,  except  as  before  mentiomd, 
should  not  be  used  :  as,  'This  house  of  the  governor  is  very 
commodious  :'  'the  crown  of  tha  king  was  stolen  :'  'that 
privilege  of  the  scholar  was  never  abused.'  (See  page  53.) 
But  "after  all  that  can  be  said  for  this  double  genitive,  as 
it  is  termed,  some  grammarians  think  that  it  would  he  better 
to  avoid  the  use  of  it  altogether,  and  to  give  the  sentiment 
another  form  of  expression. 


7.  When  an  entire  clause  of  a  sentence,  beginning 
with  a  particle  of  the  present  tense,  is  ustd  as  one 
name,  or  to  express  one  idea  or  circumstance,  the  noun 
on  which  it  depends  may  be  put  in  the  genitive  case: 
thus,  instead  of  saying,  'What  is  the  reason  of  this 
person  dismissing  his  servant  so  hastily  T  that  is,  'what 
is  the  reason  of  this  person  in  dismissing  his  servant  so 
hastily '''  we  may  say,  and  perhaps  ought  to  say, 'What 
is  the  reason  of  this  person's  dismissing  of  his   servant 


Rule  11.]  SYNTAX.  163 

so  hastily  ?"  Just  as  we  say,  "What  is  the  reason  of  this 
person's  hasty  dismission  of  his  seivant  ?"  So  also,  we  say, 
"I  remembered  it  being  reckoned  a  great  exploit;''  or  more 
properly,  "I  remember  its  being  reckoned,"  <S:c.  I'he  fol- 
lowing sentence  is  correct  aird  proper:  "Much  will  depend 
on  the  pupil's  cmiposing,  but  more  on  his  reading  frequently." 
It  would  not  be  accurate  to  say,  "Much  will  depend  on  the 
pnpil  composing:''  Sec  We  also  properly  say,  ''This  will  be 
the  etfect  of  fh''  p^^piVs  composing  frequently;"  instead  of, 
"Cy  the  pnpil  composing  frequently." 


RULE  XI. 

Active  verbs  govern  the  objective  case :  as, 
"Truth  ennobles  /ler;"  "She  comforts  me  f^ 
'*Thej  support  us  ;''  Virtue  rewards  her  foU 
loivers,^^ 

In  English,  the  nominative  case,  denoting  the  subject, 
usually  goes  before  the  verb;  and  the  objective  case,  denot- 
ing the  object,  follows  the  verb  active ;  and  it  is  the  order 
that  determines  the  case  in  notins ;  as,  "Alexander  conquer- 
ed the  Persians."  But  the  pronoun  having  a  proper  form 
for  each  of  those  cases,  is  sometimes,  when  it  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  placed  before  the  verb;  and,  when  it  is  in  the 
nominative  case,  follows  the  object  and  verb;  as,  "^^owi 
ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you." 

This  position  of  the  pronoun  sometimes  occasions  its  pro- 
per case  and  government  to  be  neglected;  as  in  the  follow- 
ing instances :  *Who  should  I  esteem  more  than  the  wise 
and  good  ?'  'By  the  character  of  those  who  you  choose  for 
your  frieruls,  your  own  is  likely  to  be  formed.'  'Those  are 
the  persons  who  he  thought  true  to  his  interest.'  'Who 
should  I  see  the  other  day  but  my  old  friend  ?'  'Whosoever 
the  court  favors.'  In  all  these  places  it  ought  to  be  whom, 
the  relative  being  governed  in  the  objective  case  by  the 
verbs  'esteem,  choose,  thought,'  &c.  'He  who,  under  all 
proper  circumstances,  has  the  boldness  to  speak  truth,  choose 
for  thy  friend  :'  It  should  be,  ^him  who,'  &c» 


U\  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  11 

Verbs  neuter  do  not  act  upon,  or  govern,  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns. 'He  steps;  (hey  muse^  &c.  are  not  transitive. 
Tfi.  y  are,  therefore,  not  I'ollcwed  by  an  otyective  case,  spe- 
cifying (he  ol.jf  ct  of  an  acfion.  But  when  tbtis  c^se,  or  an 
object  of  action,  comes  alter  such  veri;s,  though  it  may  carry 
the  a[)pearance'of  I  ting  governed  by  them,  it  is  atfected  by 
a  preposition  or  some  other  word  understood:  as,  'He  resid- 
ed many  years  [that  is,  for  or  during  many  years]  in  that 
street:'  'He  rode  8t\eral  miles  [thai  s.  for  or  through  the 
space  of  several  n.iks]  on  that  day  :'  'He  lay  an  hour  [t^ at 
IS,  r/z/nV?^  an  hour]  in  great  tortiiri .'  In  the  pluasts,  'To 
dream  a  dre-m,'  'To  live  a  virtuous  life,'«^:c.  it  appears  that 
the  noun  expresses  the  s.  me  notion  \vilh  the  verb,  and  that 
it  is  no  oljeet  of  an  action. 

1.  Some  writers,  however,  use  certain  neuter  verbs  as  If 
they  were  transitive,  putting  alter  (hem  the  objective  case, 
agreeably  to  the  French  construction  of  r^cipKeal  verl  s ; 
but  (his  f  ustom  is  so  foreign  to  tlie  idiom  of  the  English 
tongue,  that  it  ought  not  to  be  adopted  or  imitated.  The 
following  are  some  irstances  of  this  pnu  tice.  ^Reprntwg 
him  of  his  chsign.'  *The  king  soin  found  reason  to  rtpnit 
him  of  Ins  provoking  such  dangerous  entmies.'  'The  pop- 
ular lords  did  not  fail  to  enlarge  (b<n.selv(s  on  the  sulject.' 
'The  nearer  his  successes  approaehid  him  to  the  throne,' 
*Go,flec  thee  av\ay  into  (he  land  of  Judah.'  'I  think  it  hv 
no  means  a  tit  and  dectnt  thing  to  vie  charities,'  &'c.  'They 
have  spent  their  whole  time  and  pains  lo  agree  the  sixitd 
with  the  profane  chronology.' 

2.  Active  verbs  are  sometimes  as  improperly  made  neu- 
ter; as,  '1  musi  premise  VNilh  three  cirei  mstantes.'  'Those 
that  think  to  ingratiate  tvith  him  by  calumniating  me.' 

3.  The  neuter  verb  is  varied  like  the  active  ;  but  having 
in  some  degree  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  admits  in  many 
instances,  of  the  passive  form,  retaining  still  the  neuter  sig- 
niticatioD,  chiefly  in  such  verbs  as  signify  some  sort  of  mo^ 
tion,  or  change  of  place  or  condition :  as,  '1  am  come ;  I 
was  gone  ;  I  am  grow n  ;  1  was  fallen.'  The  following  ex- 
amples however  appear  to  be  erroneous,  in  giving  the  neu- 


Rule  11.]  SYNTAX.  165 

ter  verbs  a  passive  form,  instead  of  an  active  one.  *The 
rule  of  our  holy  religion,  from  whicii  we  arc  infinitely  swer- 
veiV  'The  whole  obligation  of  that  law  and  covenant  was 
iiho  ceased.^  'Whose  number  wa^  now  amounted  to  three 
hundred.'  'This  mareschal,  upon  some  discontent,  ivas  en- 
iered  into  a  conspiracy  against  his  master.'  'At  the  end  of 
a  campaign,  when  half  the  men  are  deserted  or  killed.'  It 
should  be,  'have  swerved,  had  ceased,'  <fcc. 

4/ The  verb  to  he,  through  all  its  variations,  has  the  same 
case  after  it,  hs  that  wi^irh  liext  precedes  it :  'i  am  he  VNhom 
they  invited  :'  ^It  may  be  (or  might  hav<' been) /i^,  but  zf 
caiinot  tie  (or  could  not  have  l>een)  Z;'  'It  is  aupe&sible  to 
hethfi/-^  'It  seems  to  have  been  he,  vho  conducted  himself 
so  Wisely  :'  '7/  appeared  to  be  f>he  ihal  transacttd  the  busi- 
ness :'  '1  understood  it  to  I  e  hiii  ;'  'I  believe  it  to  have  been 
iha?i:'  We  at  first  to(.k  it  to  \a  her  ;  but  ^^ere  after^^a^ds 
convinced  that  it  wr^s  not  i/if.'  'He  is  not  the  person  r^hc  it 
seamed  he  was.'  'Be  is  rtally  the  prison  nho  Le  appeared 
to  be.'  'Hhe  is  rot  now  ^he  wcm-n  whctii  they  represenied 
her  to  have  been.'  'J4  htin  do  you  fancy  him  to  le  V  By 
thise  examples,  it  appears  that  this  substantive  verb  has  i,o 
government  of  case,  but  serves,  in  all  iis  terms,  as  a  conduc- 
tor to  the  casts;  so  ihat  the  two  cases  which,  in  the  con- 
struction of  I  be  sentence,  are  the  next  t  efcre  and  after  it, 
Jijust  always  be  alike.  Perha[  s  this  subject  will  be  more  in- 
telligible to  the  learner,  '  y  observing,  that  ibe  vsords  in  the 
cases  preceding  and  following  the  verb  to  be,  may  be  said  to 
be  in  ajipositicn  to  ench  oiber.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  'I 
understood  it  to  be  bim,'  the  words  it  and  Mm  are  in  apposi- 
tion;  that  is,  'they  refer  to  the  same  thing,  and  are  in  the 
same  case.' 

The  following  sentences  contain  deviations  from  the  rule^ 
and  exhibit  the  pronoun  in  a  wrong  c.sse:  'It  might  have 
been  Mm,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  it :'  'Though  1  was  blam- 
ed, it  could  not  have  been  mc  ;'  *I  saw  one  whom  1  took  to 
be  6/t^;'  'She  is  the  person  who  I  understood  it  to  have  been:' 
'Who  do  you  think  me  to  be  ?'  'Whom  do  men  say  that  1 
''m  ?'    'And  whom  think  ye  that  1  am  ?' 

Passive  verbs  which  s^snify  naming,  &c  have  the  same 
case  before  and  after  them :  as,  'He  was  called  Caesar ;  She 


166  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  12. 

Avas  named  Penelope;  Homer  is  styled  the  prince  of  poets; 
Jamts  \vas  created  a  duke;  The  general  was  saluted  empe- 
ror;  The  professor  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  prince.'* 

5.  The  auxiliary  let  governs  the  objective  case  :  as.  'Let 
hi?}i  heware:'  'Let  us  judge  candidly  :'  'Let  tUem  uoi  pre- 
sume :'     'Let  George  study  his  lesson.' 


RULE  XIL 

One  verb  g:overns  another  that  follows  if,  or 

]e|iends   upon   it,  in  tlie  if^finitive  mood :/ as, 

Oase  to  do  evil;    h  arn   to  do  well:'      *VVe 

should  he  prepared  to  render  an  account  of  our 

actions.' 

The  preposition  /o,  Ihough  generally  used 
before  the  latter  verb,  is  sometimes  properly 
omitted  :  as,  'I  heard  him  say  it;'  instead  of 
Ho  say  it.' 

The  verbs  which  have  con?nionly  other  verl  s  following 
tlum  in  the  infinilne  mood,  wilhout  tl  e  sign  /(?,  are  bidsdr.re, 
need,  make,  see,  hear,  feel;  and  also,  let,  not  used  us  an 
auxiliary  ;  and  perhajs  a  ftw  others  :  as,  '1  hade  him  (?o  it ;' 

'  e  dare  not  do  if;'  'I  saw  him  do  it ;'  '1  heard  him  say  it;' 

riiou  leltest  liim  go.' 

1.  In  the  following  passages,  the  word  to^  the  sign  of  the 
infinitive  mood,  where  it  is  distinguished  hy  Italic  charac- 
ters, is  superfluous  and  improper.  'I  have  ohserved  seme 
satirists  to  use,'  Ac.  'To  see  so  many  to  make  so  little  con- 
science of  so  great  a  sin.'  *It  cannot  hut  be  a  delightful 
spectacle  to  God  and  angels,  to  see  a  young  person,  besieg- 
ed by  powerful  temptations  on  every  side,  to  acquit  himself 
gloriously,  and  resolufely  to  hold  out  against  the  most  vio- 
lent assaults ;  to  behold  one  in  the  prime  and  flower  of  his 

*Sec  English  Exarises,  Uth  Edit,  p,  11,     The  Note, 


Rule  13.)  SYNTAX.  167 

age,  (hat  is  courted  by  pleasures  and  honors,  by  the  devil, 
and  all  the  bewitching  vanities  of  the  world,  to  reject  all 
these,  and  to  cleave  stedfastly  unto  God.' 

This  mode  has  also  been  improperly  used  in  the  following 
places:  *I  am  not  like  other  men,  to  envy  the  talents  I  can- 
not reach.'  'Grammarians  have  denied,  or  at  least  doubted 
them  to  he  genuine.'  *Th'it  all  our  doings  may  be  ordered 
by  thy  governance,  to  do  always  what  is  righteous  in  thy 
sight.' 

/  The  infinitive  is  frequently  governed  by  adjectives,  sub- 
stantives and  participles  :  as,  'He  is  eager  to  learn  :'  'She 
is  worthy  to  be  loved  :'  'They  have  a  desire  to  improve  :' 
'Endeavoring  to  persuade.'  * 

The  infinitive  mood  has  much  of  the  nature  of  a  substan- 
tive, expressing  the  action  itself  which  the  verb  signifies,  as 
the  participle  has  the  nature  of  an  adjective.  Thus  the  in- 
finitive mood  dot^s  the  office  of  a  substantive  in  different  ca- 
ses :  in  the  nominative,  as,  'To  flay  is  pleasant .'  in  the  ob- 
jective, as,  'Boys  love  io  play  P  'For  to  will  is  present  with 
me  ;  but  to  perform  that  which  is  good  1  find  not.' 

The  infinitive  mood  is  often  made  absolute,  or  used  inde- 
pendently on  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  supplying  the  place 
of  the  conjunction  that  with  the  potential  wood :  as,  'To 
confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault :'  'To  begin  wilh  the  first:* 
*To  proceed  :'  'To  conclude  :'  that  is,  'That  I  may  confess,* 
ifec. 

RULE  XIII. 

In  the  use  of  words  and  phrases  which,  in 
point  of  time,  relate  to  each  other,  a  due  re- 
gard to  thai  relation  should  be  observed.  In- 
stead of  sayinj^,  'The  Lord  hath  given^  and  the 
Lord  hath  taken  away  ;'  we  should  say,  'The 
Lord  gave^  and  the  Lord  hath  taken  away.'  In- 
steiul  of,  'I  remember  the  family  more  than 
twenty  years;'  it  should  be,  '1  have  remembered 
the  family  more  than  twenty  years.' 


168  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  13- 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  particular  rules  for  the  management 
of  the  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs,  with  respect  to  one  anoth- 
er so  that  they  may  be  proper  and  consistent.  The  best 
rule  that  can  be  given  is  this  vtv  general  one  :  'To  observe 
XV  dt  the  sense  necesstrily  requires.'  It  may,  however,  be 
of  use  to  give  a  few  examples  of  irregular  construction.-— 
*  IMie  last  week  1  intended  to  have  written^^  is  a  very  com- 
mon phrase;  the  infinitive  being  in  the  past  time,  as  well  as 
th^  verb  which  it  follows.  But  it  is  certainly  wroiig;  for 
how  long  soever  it  now  is  since  1  thouirht  of  writing,  'to 
write'  was  then  present  to  me,  and  must  still  be  considered 
as  present,  when  I  bring  back  that  time,  and  the  thoughts 
of  it.  It  ous:ht  therefore  to  be,  'The  last  week  I  inteiuled 
to  rvriteJ*  The  following  sentences  are  also  erroneous:  'I 
cannot  excuse  the  remissness  of  those  whose  business  it 
should  have  been,  as  it  certninly  was  their  interest,  to  have 
interposed  their  good  ortit  es.'  'There  were  two  circumstan- 
ce s  \\hich  made  it  necessary  for  them  to  have  lost  no  time.' 
'History  painters  would  have  found  it  ditficult  to  have  in- 
vented  such  a  species  of  beings.'  They  ought  to  be,  'io  in- 
terposf,  to  lose,  to  inventJ'  'On  the  morrow,  because  he 
would  have  known  the  certainty,  wherefore  he  was  accused 
of  the  Jews,  he  loosed  him.'  It  ought  to  be,  'because  he 
would  know, ^  or  rather  ^hnns;  nnllins:  to  know,'*  'The  blind 
m  «n  said  unto  him.  Lord,  that  I  miLhi  receive  my  sight.' 
*If  by  any  means  i  mio^/i/ att  lin  imto  the  resurrection  of  the 
d.'  id  :"  *'may^  in  both  places,  would  have  been  better. — 
'From  his  bii>]ical  knowledge,  he  appears  to  study  the  Scrip- 
tures with  great  attention  :'  '/c»  have  studird'  <&rc.  'I  feared 
th  >t  I  should  have  lost  it,  before  I  arrived  at  the  city  :' 
^should  lose  itJ*  '1  had  rather  wnJk  :'  it  shoidd  be,  'I  would 
rather  walk.'  'It  would  have  afforded  me  no  satisfaction,  if 
I  c  uhl  perform  it :'  it  should  he,  'if  I  could  have  perforuud 
it :'  or,  'it  would  afford  me  no  satisfaction,  if  I  could  perform 
it.' 

To  preserve  consistency  in  the  time  of  verbs,  we  must  re- 
coileci  that,  in  the  sul»junctive  mood,  the  present  and  imper- 
ffct  tenses  often  carry  with  them  a  fjiture  sense;  and  t)»at 
the  auxiliaries  shoidd  nm\  wou'd,  in  the  imperfect  times  ^rc 
use  d  t)  express  the  present  and  future  as  well  as  the  past : 
for  which  see  page  76, 


Rule  13.)  SYNTAX.  l€0 

1.  It  is  proper  fortlier  to  obperve,  flint  ver!  s  of  Dk^  nifin- 
itive  mood  in  the  following  form;  'to  write,'  Uo  \' 

and  'to  be  written,'  always  denote  sometliing  t\.,...,  ^  .  ^ 
with  the  time  of  the  governing  verb,  or  subsequent  to  il : — 
hnt  when  verbs  of  that  mood  are  expressed  as  t'oUov  s  : 
•To  have  been  writing,'  'to  have  \>ritten,'  and  'lo  l-ave 
been  written,'  they  always  denote  something  cmircedfnt  to 
the  time  of  the  governing  verb.  Ttsis  remark  is  ihought  to 
be  of  importance;  for  if  duly  attended  to,  it  will,  in  most 
cases,  be  sutTicient  to  direct  us  in  the  relative  application  of 
tiiese  tenses. 

The  following  sentence  is  properly  and  analogically  ex« 
pressed:  'I  found  him  better  than  I  expected  to  find  him.' 
'Expected  to  have  found  him, ^  is  irreconcilable  alike  to  gram- 
mar and  to  sense.  Indeed,  all  verbs  expressive  of  hope, 
desire,  intention,  or  command,  must  invariably  be  followed 
by  the  present,  and  not  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.  Ev- 
ery person  would  perceive  an  error  in  this  ex[)rfssion;  *it  is 
long  since  I  commanded  him  to  have  done  it :'  Yet,  *expect- 
ed  to  have  founds  is  no  better.  It  is  as  clear  that  ihi,  finding 
must  be  posterior  to  the  expectation,  as  that  the  ohcdimice 
must  be  posterior  to  the  command. 

In  the  sentence  which  fallows,  the  verb  is  with  propri- 
ety put  in  the  perfect  tense  of  the  infinitive  mood;  'it 
would  have  afforded  me  great  pleasure,  as  often  as  1  re- 
flected upon  it,  to  have  been  the  messenger  of  such  intelli- 
gence.' As  the  message,  in  this  instance,  was  the  antece- 
dent to  the  pleasure^  and  not  contemfiorary  witii  it,  the  verb 
expressive  of  the  message  must  denote  that  antecedence,  by 
being  in  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.  If  the  message  and 
the  pleasure  had  been  referred  to  as  contemporary,  the  sub- 
s-equent  verb  would,  with  equal  f>ro[>riety,  have  heen  put  in 
the  present  of  the  infinitive:  as,  'It  woidd  have  afforded  me 
great  pleasure,  to  be  the  messenger  of  such  intelligence.' 
In  the  former  instance,  the  phrase  in  question  is  equivalent 
to  these  words;  '(/  Z  had  been  the  messenger;'  iu  the  latter 

instance,  to  this  expression,  ^ Being  the  m*ssen^er.' -For 

a  further  discussion  of  this  sutject,  see  thf   Tenth  edition  of 
the  Key  to  the  Exercises,  rulk  xui.      Ths  Note. 
P 


i70  ENi  LISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  13. 

It  is  proper  to  inform  the  learner,  that,  in  order  to 
express  the  past  time  with  the  defective  verb  oiightj 
the  perfect  of  the  infinitive  must  always  be  used :  as, 
*He  thought  to  have  done  it.'  When  we  use  this  verb, 
this  is  the  only  possible  way  to  distinguish  the  past 
from  the  present. 

In  support  of  the  positions  advanced  under  this 
rule,  we  can  produce  the  sentiments  of  eminent 
grammarians ;  amongst  whom  are  Lowth  and  Camp- 
bell. But  there  are  some  writers  on  grammar,  who 
strenuously  maintain,  that  the  governed  verb  in  the 
infinitive  ought  to  be  in  the  past  tense,  when  the  verb 
which  governs  it,  is  in  the  past  time.  Though  this 
cannot  be  admitted,  in  the  instances  which  we  have 
already  given  under  this  rule,  or  in  any  instances  of  a 
similar  nature,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in 
many  cases,  in  which  the  thing  referred  to  preceded 
the  governing  verb,  it  would  be  proper  and  allowa- 
ble. We  may  say,  <From  a  conversation  I  once  had 
with  him,  he  appeared  to  have  studied  Homer  with 
great  care  and  judgment.'  It  would  be  proper  also 
to  say,  *From  his  conversation,  be  appears  to  have 
studied  Homer  with  great  care  and  judgment :'  *That 
unhappy  man  is  supposed  to  have  died  by  violence.' 
These  examples  are  not  only  consistent  with  our  rule, 
but  they  confirm  and  illustrate  it.  It  is  the  tense  of 
the  governing  verb  only,  that  marks  what  is  called 
the  absolute  time  ;  the  tense  of  the  verb  governed, 
marks  solely  its  relative  time  with  respect  to  the 
other. 

To  assert,  as  some  writers  do,  that  verbs  in  the  infinitive 
mood  have  no  tenses,  no  relative  distinctions  of  present, 
past,  and  future,  is  inconsistent  with  just  grammatical  views 
of  the  subject.  That  these  verbs  associate  with  verbs  in 
all  the  tenses,  is  no  proof  of  their  having  no  peculiar  time 
of  their  own.  Whatever  period  the  governing  verb  as- 
sumes, whether  present,  past,  or  future,  the  governed  verb 
in  the  iofiaitive  always  respects  that  period^  and  its  time  ia 


Rule  14.)  SYNTAX.  171 

calculated  from  it.  Thue^  the  time  of  the  infinitive  may  be 
before,  after,  or  the  same  as,  the  time  of  tlie  governing  verb, 
according  as  the  thing  signified  by  the  infinitive,  is  suppos- 
ed to  be  before,  after,  or  present  with,  the  thing  denoted  by 
the  governing  verb.  It  is,  therefore,  with  great  propriety, 
that  teases  are  assigned  to  verbs  of  the  infinitive  mood. 
The  point  of  time  from  which  they  ar^  computed,  is  of  no 
€onsFquence ;  since  present,  past,  and  future,  are  completely 
applicable  to  them. 

We  shall  conclude  our  observations  under  this  rule,  by 
remarking,  that  though  it  is  often  proper  to  use  the  perfect 
of  tlie  infinitive  after  the  governing  verb,  yet  there  are  par- 
ticular cases,  in  which  it  would  be  better  to  give  the  ex- 
pression a  different  form.  Thus,  instead  of  saying,  '1  wish 
to  have  written  to  him  sooner,'  'I  then  wished  to  have  writ- 
ten to  him  sooner,'  *He  will  one  day  wish  to  have  Avritten 
sooner ;'  if  would  be  more  perspicuous  and  forcible,  as  well 
as  more  agreeable  to  the  practice  of  good  writers,  to  say,  ^I 
wish  that  i  had  written  to  him  sooner,'  'I  then  wished  that 
I  had  written  to  him  sooner,'  'He  will  one  day  wish  that  he 
had  written  sooner.'  Should  the  justness  of  these  strictures 
be  admitted,  there  would  still  be  numerous  occasions  for  the 
use  of  the  past  infinitive ;  as  we  muy  perceive  by  a  few  ex- 
amples. 'It  would  ever  afterwards  have  been  a  source  of 
pleasure,  to  have  found  him  wise  and  virtuous.'  'To  have 
deferred  his  repentance  longer,  would  have  disqualified  him 
from  repenting  at  all.'  'They  will  then  see,  that  to  have 
faithfully  performed  their  duty,  would  have  been  their  great- 
est consolation.'* 


RULE  XIV. 

Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the 
verbs  have  from  which  they  are  derived  :  as, 
*I  am  weary  with  hearing  him:''  'She  is  instruct- 
ing us  :'*  'The  tutor  is  admonishing  Charles.'f 

*See  Key  to  the  English  Exercises,  Tenth  edition,  Rule  xiii, 
The  Note. 
f  See  '^English  Exercises,'*  Eleven ni  edition,  page  75. 


172  ENGLISH  GRAM.MAR.  (Rule  14. 

1.  Participles  are  sometimes  s'ovenifd  by  the  article  ;  for 
the  prtsent  f>art  cVle,  with  the  definitive  article //i  i^efore 
it,  beconiiS  a  substantive,  and  must  have  the  preposition 
o/*  after  it ;  as,  ^These  are  the  rides  of  u^ramruijr,  by  the  ob- 
serving of  which,  you  may  avoid  mistakes.'  It  wouhl  not 
be  proper  to  say,  'bv  the  ofiserving:  whieh,'  nor  *by  observ- 
i?jg  of  whieh;'  but  the  phrase,  without  either  article  or  pre- 
p.>oition,  would  be  ria;ht  :  as,  'by  observing  which.'  The 
article  a  or  an  hMS  the  sime  effect :  as,  'This  was  a  betray- 
ing of  the  trust  rep«»8ed  in  him.' 

This  ru!e  arises  from  the  nature  and  idiom  of  our  lan- 
guage, anil  from  as  plain  a  principle  as  any  on  w  hich  it  is 
founded;  namely,  that  a  word  which  has  the  article  before 
it,  and  possessive  preposition  cf  after  it,  must  be  a  noun: 
and,  if  a  noun,  it  ought  to  follow  the  construction  of  a  noun, 
and  not  to  have  the  regimen  of  a  verb.  It  is  the  participial 
termination  of  this  sort  of  words  that  is  apt  to  deceive  us, 
and  make  us  treat  them  as  if  they  were  of  aa  amphibious 
species,  partly  nouns  and  partly  verbs. 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  the  violation  of  this 
rule.  *He  was  sent  to  prepare  the  way  by  preaching  of  re- 
pentance :'  it  ought  to  be,  'by  the  preaching  of  repentance  ;' 
or,  *by  preaching  repentance.'  ^hy  the  continual  mortify- 
ing our  corrupt  atVections  :'  it  should  be,  'by  the  continual 
mortifying  of,'  or,  'by  continually  mortifying  our  corrupt  af- 
fections.' 'They  laid  out  themselves  towards  f/ie  advancing 
and  promoting  the  good  of  it ;'  'towards  advancing  and  pro- 
moting the  good.'  'It  is  an  overvaluing  ourselves,  to  reduce 
ever}'  thing  to  the  narrow  measure  of  our  capacities;'  *it  is 
overvaluing  ourselves,'  or,  'a/i  overvaluing  of  ourselves.' — 
'Keeping  of  one  day  in  seven,' &c.  it  ought  to  be,  'the  keep- 
ing of  one  day,'  or  'keeping  one  day.' 

A  phrase  in  which  the  article  precedes  the  present  ])arti- 
elple  and  the  possessive  preposition  follows  it,  will  not,  in 
very  instance,  eoavey  the  same  meaning,  as  would  be  con- 
veyed by  the  participle  without  the  article  and  preposition, 
lie  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had  in  tlie  hearing  of  the  phi- 
losopher,' is  capable  of  a  different  sense  from,  'He  expressed 
the  pleasure  he  had  in  hearing  the  philosopher.'  When, 
therefore,  we  wish,  for  the  sake  of  harmony  or  variety,  to 


UlJLE  14.J  SYNTAX.  173 

substitute  one  of  these  phraseologies  for  the  other,  we  should 
previously  consider  whether  they  are  perfectly  similar  in 
the  sentirnenls  they  convey, 

2.  ^i^he  same  observations  which  have  been  made  res- 
pecting the  eifect  of  the  article  and  participle,  appear  to  be 
applicable  to  the  pronoun  and  participle,  when  they  are  sim- 
ilarly associated  ;  as,  "j\iuch  depends  on  their  observing  of 
the  rule,  and  error  will  be  the  consequence  of  their  neglect- 
ing of  it,'  instead  of  ^thtir  observing  the  rule,  and  their  neg- 
lecting  i\,^  We  should  perceive  this  more  clearly,  if  we 
substitue  a  noun  for  the  pronoun :  as,  'Much  depends  upon 
Tyro's  observing  of  the  rule,'  &c.  But,  as  this  construction 
sounds  rather  harshly,  it  would,  in  general,  be  better  to  ex- 
press the  sentiment  in  the  folio wino:,  or  some  other  form  : 
'Much  depends  on  the  mys  being  observed  ;  and  error  will 
be  the  consequence  of  its  being  neglected:''  or — ^or.  observ- 
ing the  rule;  and — of  neglecting  it.'  This  remark  may  be 
applied  to  several  other  modes  of  expression  to  be  foun«i  in 
this  work  ;  \shich,  though  they  are  contended  for  as  strictly 
correct,  are  not  ajwa^  s  the  most  eligible,  on  account  of  their 
unpleasant  sound.     See  pag'js  53,  72,  159 — 103, 

We  sometimes  meet  with  expressions  like  the  following  : 
*I«  forming  of  his  sentences,  he  w^as  very  exact ;'  '•From 
calling  of  names,  he  proceeded  to  blows.'  But  this  is  in- 
correct language ;  for  prepositions  do  not,  like  articles  and 
pronouns,  convert  the  participle  itself  into  the  nature  of  a 
substantive  ;  as  we  have  shewn  above  in  the  phrase,  'By  ob- 
serving which.'  And  yet  {\\^.  participle  with  its  adjuncts, 
may  be  consi  Icred  as  a  substantive  phrase  in  the  objective 
ca^e,  govern<:tl  by  the  preposition  or  verb,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood :  as,  'By  /?ro /i  '  r  muck,  etnd performing  hit  little^ 
we  become  despicai:;  ,  He  studied  to  avoid  expressing 
Iduiclf  too  severely.^ 

3.  As  the  perfect  participle  and  the  imperfect  tense  are 
sometimes  dilTeient  in  tfieir  form,  care  must  be  taken  that 
they  be  net  indiscriminately  used.  It  is  frequently  said* 
*He  begun,'  for  ^he  began ;'  'he  run,'  for  'he  ran  ^'  'he  drunk,* 
tor  be  'drank  f  the  paniclple  being  here  used  Instead  of  th^ 


174  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  II) 

imperfect  tense  :  and  much  more  frequently  (lie  imperfect 
tenSe  instead  of  the  participle  :  as,  '1  had  wrote,'  for  4  liad 
written  ;'  4  was  chose,'  for  -I  was  chosen  ;'  *1  have  eat,'  for 
'I  have  eaten.'  *Hi3  words  were  interwove  with  si^hs;' — 
^were  intern Gvm.^  'He  wouUl  have  spoke;' — 'spoken'  'He 
hath  hore  witness  to  his  faithful  servants;' — 'borne'  'By 
this  means  he  over-run  his  guide;' — ^over-ran'  'The  sun 
has  rose;' — 'risen,'  'His  constitution  has  heen  greatly 
shook,  hut  his  mind  is  too  strong  to  he  shook  by  such  caus- 
es;'— 'shaken'  in  both  places.  'They  were  verses  wrote  on 
ghiss;' — 'written'  'Philosophers  have  often  mistook  the 
source  of  true  happiness  ;' — it  ought  to  be  '•mistaken.' 

The  participle  ending  in  ed^  is  often  improperly  contract- 
ed l>y  changing  f  J  into  f  ;  as,  'In  good  behavior,  he  is  not 
sitrpast  by  any  pupil  of  tiie  school.'  'She  was  much  dis- 
trest.'     They  ought  to  be  'swpassed,'  ulistrcsscd,' 


RULE  XV. 

Adverbs,  tlioijt^li  they  have  no  government 
of  case,  lense,  &c.  require  an  appropriate  sit- 
uation in  the  sentence,  viz.  for  the  most  pail 
before  adjectives,  after  verbs  active  or  neuter, 
and  frequently  between  the  auxiliary  and  the 
verb:  as,  *He  umde  n  very  sensiUe  discourse ; 
he  spoke  unaffectedly  ?ii)d  forcibly,  and  was  atten- 
tively heard  by  the  whole  assembly.' 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  positions  of  adverbs  may 
serve  to  illustrate  tlie  rule.  'He  must  not  expect  to  find 
study  agreeable  always;' — 'always  agreeable.'  'Weal- 
ways  find  them  ready  when  we  want  them;' — 'we  find 
them  always  ready,'  &c.  'Dissertations  on  the  prophe- 
cies which  have  remarkably  been  fulfilled ;' — 'which  have 
been  remarkably'  'Instead  of  looking  contemptuously 
down  on  the  crooked  in  ciind  or  m  body,  we  should  look 


EuLE  15.)  SYNTAX.  175 

up  thankfully  to  God  who  hath  mrule  U3  better;' — ^instead 
oi'  looking  (iovvn  contemptuously^  <fee.  \ve  should  tlianlxfully 
look  up^^  <fec.  'If  thou  art  blessed  naturally  with  a  ijood 
memory,  continually  exercise  it  ;• — 'natiiraUy  blessed^  &c. 
'exercise  it  continually,'' 

Sometimes  the  adverb  is  placed  with  propriety  before  the 
verb,  or  at  some  distance  after  it;  sometime^  between  the 
two  auxiliaries;  and  sometimes  after  them  both;  as  in  the 
following  examples.  'Vice  always  creeps  by  degree^,  and 
insensibly  \vi\m'Si\vo\mi\  us  those  concealed  fetters,  by  which 
we  ure  at  last  completely  bound.'  'He  encouraged  the  Eng- 
lish barons  to  carry  their  opposition/arf/irr.'  'They  com- 
pelled him  to  declare  that  he  would  abjure  the  realm /or- 
ever  ;^  instead  of,  'to  carry  farther  their  oj)p03ition;'  and  'to 
abjure  forever  the  realm.'  'lie  hm generally  been  reckoned 
an  honest  man.'  'The  book  may  always  be  had  at  such  a 
place;'  in  preference  to  'has  been  generally;'  and  'may  be 
always.'  'These  rules  will  be  clearly  understood,  after  they 
have  been  diligently  studied,'  are  preferable  to,  'These  rules 
will  clearly  be  understood,  after  they  have  diligently  been 
studied.' 

From  the  preceding  remarks  and  exanipleSi  it  appears 
that  no  exact  and  determinate  rule  can  be  gives  for  the 
placing  of  adverbs,  on  all  occasions.  The  general  rule  may 
be  of  considerable  use ;  but  the  easy  flow  and  perspicuity 
of  the  phrase,  are  the  things  which  ought  to  be  chietiy  re- 
garded. 

The  adverb  there  is  often  used  as  an  expletive,  or  as  a 
word  that  adds  nothing  to  the  sense;  in  which  case  it  pre- 
cedes the  verb  and  the  nominative  noun:  as,  'There  is  a 
person  at  the  door;  'There  are  some  thieves  in  the  house;' 
wliich  would  be  as  well,  or  better  expressed,  bylsaying,  'A 

person  is  at  the  door  ;'    'Some  thieves  are  in  the  house.' ^ 

Sometimes  it  is  made  use  of  to  give  a  small  degree  of  em- 
phasis to  the  sentence  :  as,  '•There  was  a  man  sent  from 
iGod,  whose  name  was  John.'  When  it  is  applied  in  its 
strict  sense,  it  principally  follows  the  verb  and  the  nomina- 
tive case :  as,  'The  man  stands  there,^ 

1.    The  adverb  never ^  generally  precedes  the  verb :  as, 
I   never  was   there ;'      *He    Bev«r   comes    at  a   proper 


\H  ,  ENGLISH  GRAxMMAR.  Rule  ir>.) 

time.'  When  an  auxiliary  is  used,  it  is  placed  indifferent- 
ly, either  before  or  after  this  adverb :  as,  'He  was  never  seen 
(or  never  was  seen)  to  laugh  from  that  time.'  Never  seems 
to  be  improperly  used  in  the  following  passages.  'Ask  me 
never  80  much  dowry  and  gift.'  'If  I  make  my  hands  never 
so  clean.'  'Charm  he  never  so  wisely.'  The  word  'crcr' 
"would  be  more  suitable  to  the  sense. 

2.  In  imitation  of  the  French  idiom,  the  adverb  of  place 
whcre^  is  often  used  instead  of  the  pronoun  relative  and  a 
preposition.  'They  framed  a  protestation,  where  they  re- 
j)eated  all  their  former  claims;'  i.  e.  'm  /i^/tzc/t  they  repeated.' 
'The  king  was  still  determined  to  run  forwards,  in  the  same 
course  where  he  was  already,  by  his  precipitate  career,  too 
fatally  advanced  ;'  i*  e.  ^in  which  he  was.^  But  it  would  be 
better  to  avoid  this  mode  of  expression. 

^The  adverbs  hcncc^  thence,  and  whence^  imply  a  preposi- 
tion ;  for  they  signify,  'from  this  place,  from  that  phice,  from 
\vhat  place.'  it  seems,  therefore,  strictly  speaking,  to  be 
jmproj)er  to  join  a  preposition  with  them,  because  it  is  su- 
perfluous :  as, 'This  is  the  leviathan^  from  whence  the  wits 
of  our  age  are  said  to  borrow  their  weapons;'  'An  ancient 
author  prophecies  from  hence.'  But  the  origin  of  these 
words  is  little  attended  to,  and  the  preposition  from  so  olten 
used  in  construction  with  them,  that  the  om'.ssion  of  it,  in 
many  cases,  would  seem  stiff,  and  be  disagreeable. 

The  adverbs  here,  there,  where,  are  often  improperly  ap- 
plied to  verbs  signifying  motion,  instead  of  the  adverlts /??/«- 
er,  thither,  7vhither :  as,  'He  came  here  hastily  ;"  'i'hey  rode 
there  with  speed.'  They  should  be,  'He  came  hither  /  'They 
rode  thither,'  &:c, 

3.  We  have  some  examples  of  adverbs  being  used  for 
substantives:  'In  1687,  he  erected  it  into  a  community  of 
regulars,  since  ?i7irw,  it  has  begun  to  increase  in  those  coun- 
tries as  a  religious  order  ;'  i.  e.  'since  7vhich  time!'  'A  little 
while  and  1  sUall  not  see  you  ;'  i.  e.  'a  short  time,''  'It  is 
worth  their  while;'  i.  e.  'it  deserves  their  time  and  pains.' 
But  this  use  of  the  word  rather  suits  familiar  than  gravie 
style.     The  same  may  be  said  of  the  phrase,  'To  do  a  thing 


Rule  16.)  SY^^TAX.  177 

any  how  ;'  i.  p»  'in  any  manner;'  or,  ^sotnehorv  ;'  i.  e.  *in  some 
manner.'  'Som  liow,  worthy  as  thtse  people  are,  they  are 
under  the  influeuce  of  prejudice.' 

RULE  XVI. 

Two  negatives,  in  English,  destroy  one  ano- 
ther, or  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative  :  as, 
^JYor  did  they  not  perceive  him  ;'  that  is,  'they 
did  perceive  him.'  'His  language,  though  in- 
elegant, is  not  ungrammatical ;  that  is,  *it  is 
grammatical.' 

It  is  better  to  express  an  affirmation,  by  a  regular  affirma- 
tive, than  by  two  separate  negatives,  as  in  the  former  sen- 
tence :  but  when  one  of  the  negatives  is  joined  to  anolhel* 
word,  as  in  the  latter  sentence,  the  two  negatives  form  a 
pleasing  and  delicate  variety  of  expression. 

Some  writers  have  improperly  employed  two  negatives 
instead  of  one;  as  in  the  following  instances:  'I  never  did 
repent  of  doing  good,  nor  shall  not  now ;'  'wor  shall  1 7iowJ* 
'Never  no  imitator  grew  up  to  his  author;'  'never  did  any,'* 
&c.  'I  cannot  by  no  means  allow  him  what  his  argument 
must  prove;'  'I  cannot  by  ariy  means,'  &c.  or,  'I  can  by  no 
means.''  *Nor  lei  no  comforter  approach  me  ;'  *nor  let  any 
comforter,'  &c.  *Nor  is  danger  ever  apprehended  in  such  a 
government,  no  more  than  we  commonly  apprehend  danger 
from  thunder  or  earthquakes  :'  it  should  be,  any  more!'  'Ar- 
iosto,  Tasso,  Galileo,  wo  more  than  Raphael,  were  not  bora 
in  republics.'  'Neither  Ariosto,  Tasso,  nor  Galileo,  any 
more  than  Raphael,  was  born  in  a  republic' 

RULE  XVIL 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case  :  as, 
'I  have  heard  a  good  character  of  her  ;  'From 
him  that  is  needy  turn  not  away  ;'  'A  word  to 
the  wise  is  sufficient /or  them;^  'We  may  be 
good  and  happy  without  riches,^ 


178  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  17. 

TJie  followinof  are  examples  of  the  nominative  case  be- 
ing used  iiisfe<ul  of  the  olyeclive.  'Who  servest  thou  un- 
der ?'  *Who  do  you  speak  to  V  'We  are  still  much  at  a  loss 
who  civil  power  belongs  to  ;'  'Who  dost  thou  ask  for  ?'  'As- 
sociate not  with  those  who  none  can  speak  well  of.'  In  all 
these  p'ac€s  it  ought  to  be  '■whom,''     See  Note  1. 

The  preposition  to  and  for  are  often  understood,  chiefly 
before  the  pronouns:  as,  'Give  me  the  book  ;'  *Get  me  some 
paper ;'  that  is,  'to  me;  for  me.'  'Wo  is  me  ;'  i.  e.  'to  me.' 
He  was  banished  England ;'  i.  e.  from  England.' 

1.  The  preposition  is  often  separated  from  the  relative 
which  it  governs  :  as,  'W^hom  wilt  thou  give  it  to  ?'  instead 
of,  'to  7vhom  wilt  thou  give  it  ?'  'He  is  an  author  whom  1  am 
much  delighted  with  ;'  'The  world  is  too  |)oIite  to  shock  au- 
thors with  a  truth,  which  generally  their  booksellers  are  the 
first  that  inform  them  of.'  This  is  an  idiom  to  which  our 
language  is  strongly  inclined;  it  prevails  in  common  con- 
versation, and  suits  very  well  with  the  familiar  style  in  wri- 
ting :  but  the  placing  of  the  preposition  before  the  relative, 
is  more  graceful,  as  well  as  more  perspicuous,  and  agrees 
much  better  with  the  solemn  and  elevated  style. 

2.  Some  writers  separate  the  preposition  from  its  noun,  in 
order  to  connect  ditferent  prepositions  with  the  same  noun  : 
as,  'To suppose  thip  zodiac  and  planets  to  be  efficient/)/*,  and 
antecedent  to,  Ihrtnselves.'  This,  whether  in  the  familiar 
or  the  solemsi  style,  is  always  inelegant,  and  should  general- 
ly be  avoided.  In  forms  of  law  and  the  like,  where  fulness 
and  exactness  of  expression  must  take  place  in  every  other 
consideration,  it  may  be  admitted. 

3.  Different  relations,  and  different  senses,  must  be  ex- 
pressed by  different  prepositions,  though  in  conjunction  with 
the  same  ver*»  or  adjective.  Thus  we  sny,  'To  converse 
rvith  a  person,  i^pon  a  subject,  in  a  house,'  8cc.  We  also  say, 
*We  are  disnppointed  of  a  thing,'  when  we  cannot  get  it^ 
'and  disappointed  in  it,'  when  we  have  it,  and  find  it  does 


Rule  17)  SYNTAX.  179 

not  answ  er  our  expectations.  But  two  different  prepositions 
must  be  improper  in  the  same  construction,  aud  in  the  same 
sentence  :  as,  'The  combat  hctween  thirty  French  against 
twenty  English.' 

In  some  cases,  it  is  difficult  to  say,  to  which  of  two  prep- 
ositions the  preference  is  to  be  given,  as  both  are  used  pro- 
miscuously, and  custom  has  not  decided  in  favour  of  either 
of  them.  We  say,  'Expert  at,'  aud  'expert  in  a  thing.'  'Ex- 
pert at  finding  a  remedy  for  his  mistakes  ;'  'Expert  in  de- 
ception.' 

When  prepositions  are  subjoined  to  nouns,  they  are  gen- 
erally the  same  that  are  subjoined  to  the  verbs  from  which 
the  nouns  are  derived  :  as,  'A  compliance  rvith^  to  comply 
rviih  i  'A  disposition  to  tyranny,'  'disposed  to  tyrannise.' 

4.  As  an  accurate  and  appropriate  use  of  the  preposition 
isof  great  importance,  we  shall  select  a  considerable  number 
of  examples  of  impropriety,  in  the  application  of  this  part 
of  speech. 

1st.  With  respect  to  the  preposition  of, — 'He  is  resolved 
of  going  to  the  Prussian  court ;'  'ow  going,'  &c.  'He  was 
totally  dependent  of  the  Papal  crown  ;'  'on  the  Papal,'  &c. 
'T©  call  of  a  person,'  and  'to  wait  of  him ;'  'on  a  person,  &:c. 
•He  was  eager  of  recommending  it  to  his  fellow  citizens,'  Hn 
recommending,'  <&:c.  Of  is  sometimes  omitted,  and  some- 
times inserted  after  worths/:  as,  'It  is  worthy  observation,* 
or,  'of  observation.'  But  it  would  have  been  better  omitted 
in  the  following  sentences.  'The  emulation,  who  should 
serve  their  country  best,  no  longer  subsists  among  them,  but 
of  who  should  obtain  the  most  lucrative  command.'  'The 
rain  hath  been  falling  of  a  long  tlmei'  'failing  a  long  time.* 
*Jt  is  situation  chiefly  which  decides  of  the  fortune  and  char- 
acters of  men  ;'  ^decides  the  fortune,*  or,  'concerning  the 
fortune.'  'He  found  (he  greatest  difficulty  of  writing;* 
'in  writing.'  'It  might  have  given  me  a  greater  taste  of 
its  antiquities.'  A  taste  of  a  thing  implies  actual  enjoyment 
of  it ;'  but  a  taste  for  it,  implies  only  a  capacity  for  enjoys 
jfneiii      '^Tbis  had  a  much  greater  share  of  inciting  him^  than 


180  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  17. 

any  rep;ar(l  af'pr  his  father's  commands ;'  *share  in  inciting,' 
and  'regard  to  his  lather's,'  &c. 

2d.  With  respect  to  the  ^prepositions  fo  and  ybr. — 'You 
havf^  hestov*e(i  your  favours  to  the  most  deserving;  persons  ;' 
^ypon  the  most  desprvin}:,'  Arc.  *lie  accused  the  ministers 
for  betray int^  the  Dutch  ;'  ^of  having  hetrayed.'  *Hisahlior- 
rence  to  thnt  superstitious  fi^rure ;'  'of  that,'  &c.  *A  great 
change  to  the  better;'  for  the  l^etter.'  *Thy  prejudice  to 
my  cause;'  'agaimtJ*  'The  English  were  very  different 
people  then  to  what  tliey  are  at  present;'  from  what,'  Szc. 
*In  compliance  to  the  dechiration  ;'  'mlh,''  iic.  'It  is  more 
than  tliey  thought  for;'  'thought  of.^  'There  is  no  netd  lor 
it ;'  'of  it.'  'For  is  superfluous  in  the  phrase,  'More  than  he 
knows  ^or.'  'No  discouragement  for  the  authors  to  pro- 
ceed ;'  7o  the  authors,'  c^'c.  'It  was  perfectly  in  compliance 
to  some  ()ersous;'  ';w//i.'  'The  wisest  princes  neei\  not  think 
it  any  diminution  to  their  greatness,  or  derogation  to  their 
sufficiency,  to  rely  upon  counsel ;'  'diminutioo  c/,'  and  dero- 
gation frovi? 

3d  NA'ilh  respect  to  the  prepositions  rvith  and  vpnn. — 
*Recon<  iliug  himself  with  the  king.'  'Those  things  which 
have  the  irrealest  rfsemhlance  with  each  other,  frerpjently 
ditfer  the  most.'  'That  such  rejection  should  be  consonant 
with  our  common  nature.'  'Conformable  with,'&c.  'The 
history  of  l*eter  is  agreealde  with  the  sacred  texts'  In  all 
the  above  instances,  it  should  be,  'to^  instead  of  'with!*  'It 
isauselhat  [»erhH[)g  J  should  not  have  thoughton;'  'thought 
o/*.'  'A  greater  quantity  may  be  taken  from  the  heap,  with- 
out fnaking  any  sensible  alteration  upon  it;'  'in  it'  'In- 
trusted to  [persons  on  whom  the  parliament  could  confide;' 
'■in  whom.'  'He  was  made  much  on  at  Argos;'  'much  of^ 
4f  policy  can  prevail  upon  force;'  'over  force.'  '1  do  like- 
\\'ise  dissent  with  the  examiner;'  JromJ* 

4th.  With  resp(  ct  to  the  prepositions  tw,  from,  &c. — 
^They  should  be  informed  in  some  parts  of  his  character  ;' 
^ahout^  or,  '•concerning,''  'Upon  such  occasions  as  fell  into 
their  cognizance ;'  'under,'*  'That  variety  of  factions  into 
w hich  we  are  still  engaged  ;'  Hn  which.'    'To  restore  myself 


Rule  17.)  SYNTAX,  181 

into  the  favor  ;'  'to  flie  favor.'  *Conl(l  he  have  profited 
from  repeated  experieuccs ;'  '%.'  From  seems  to  !>e  sa- 
perHuous  n({ev  f(  rhear  :  as,  'He  could  not  forbear  from  ap- 
point ing;  the  \>o\n'  t^^e.  'A  strict  observance  after  times 
ashJ  fashions  ;'  'of  times.'  *The  character  which  we  may 
now  value  ourselves  by  drawins;;'  '2(pon  drawing.'  'Nei- 
ther of  them  shall  make  me  swerve  out  of  the  path  ;'  from 
the  path.'  *Ye  blind  guides,  which  strain  at  a  gnat,  and 
swallow  a  camel ;'  it  ought  to  be,  'which  strain  out  a  gnat, 
or,  take  a  gnat  out  of  the  liquor  by  straining  iL'  The  im- 
propriety of  the  preposition  has  wholly  destroyed  the  meau- 
ing  of  the  phrase. 

The  preposition  amori^  generally  implies  a  number  of 
things.  It  cannot  be  properly  used  in  conjunction  with 
the  word  every,  which  is  in  the  singular  number  :  as,  'Which 
is  found  among  every  species  of  liberty  ;'  'Tlie  opinion 
seems  to  gain  grouud  among  every  body.' 

5.  The  preposition  ifo  is  made  use  of  before  nouns  of 
place,  when  they  follow  verbs  and  participles  of  motion  : 
as,  '1  went  to  London  ;'  'I  am  going  to  town.'  But  the 
j)reposition  at  is  generally  used  after  the  neuter  verb  to  he : 
as,  '1  have  been  at  London  ;'  'J  was  ai  the  place  appoint- 
ed ;  'I  shall  be  nt  Paris.'  We  likewise  s.^y  :  'He  touched, 
arrived  at  any  place.'  The  preposition  in  is  set  before 
countries,  cities,  and  large  towns :  as,  'He  lives  in  Fraiice, 
in  London,  or  in  Birmingham.'  But  before  villages,  sin- 
gle houses,  and  cities  which  are  in  distant  countries,  at  \^ 
used  :  as,  'He  lives  at  Hackney ;'  'He  resides  at  Mont- 
pelier.' 

It  is  a  matter  of  indifference  with  respect  to  the  pronoun 
one  another,  whether  the  preposition  of  be  placed  between 
the  two  parts  of  it,  or  before  them  l>oth.  We  may  say, 
'They  were  jealous  of  one  another ;'  or,  'They  were  jealous 
one  of  another:'  but  perhaps  the  former  is  better. 

Participles  are  frequently  used  as  prepositions  i  as,  Ex- 
cepting, respecting,  touching,  concerning,  according.  'They 
were  ail  in  fault  except  or  excepting  him.' 


182  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK,  [Rule  Vo. 

RULE  XVIIL 

Conjunctions  connect  the  same  moods  and 
tenses  of  verbs,  and  cases  of  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns :  as,  *Candor  is  to  be  approved  and  practis- 
ed j"^  *If  thou  sincerely  desire^  and  earnestly 
pursue  virtue,  she  will  assuredly  be  found  by 
thee,  a7id  prove  a  rich  reward  ;'  ^The  master 
tauj^ht  her  and  me  to  write ;'  ^He  and  she  were 
school-fellows.'"^ 

A  few  examples  of  inaccuracy  respecting  lliis  rule  may 
further  (lis[)lay  its  utility.  'If  he  prefer  a  virtuous  life,  and 
is  sincere  in  his  professions,  he  will  succeed ;'  'if  he  prefers,'* 
*To  deride  the  miseries  of  the  unhappy,  is  inhuman;  and 
"wantino;  compassion  towards  them,  is  unchristian  ;'  *and 
to  want  compassion.'  *  The  parliament  addressed  the  kine^, 
and  has  heen  |>roro£:ued  the  same  day ;'  'and  was  prorogued.' 
*His  wealth  and  him  l)id  adieu  to  each  other ;'  'and /if.' 
•He  entreated  us,  my  comrade  and  I,  to  live  harmoniously^ 
'comrade  and  mr.'  *My  sister  and  her  were  on  good  terms;' 
•and  .sA?.'  *We  often  overlook  the  blessings  which  are  in 
our  possession,  and  are  searching  after  those  which  are  out 
of  our  reach :'  it  ought  to  he,  'and  search  after.' 

1.  Conjunctions  are,  indeed,  frequently  made  to  connect 
different  moods  and  tenses  of  verba  :  but  in  these  instance? 
<he  nominative  must  generally,  if  not  always,  be  repeated, 
-which  is  not  necessary,  though  it  may  be  done,  under  the 
construction  to  which  this  rule  refers.  We  may  say,  'He 
lives  temperately,  and  he  should  live  temperately  ;'  'He  mat/ 
return,  but  he  7vill  not  continue  ;'  'She  7vas  proud,  though 
Bhe  is  now  humble :'  but  it  is  obvious,  that  the  repetition  of 
the  nominative  in  such  cases,  is  indispensable  ;  and  that, 
by  this  means,  the  latter  members  of  these  sentences  are 
rendered  not  so  strictly  dependent  on  the  preceding,  as  those 
are  which  come  undor  the  rule.  When,  in  the  progress  of 
a  sentence,  we  pass  from  the  affirmative  to  the  negative 

*This  rule  refer"?  only  to  nouns  and  pronouns,  which  have  the  same  beariag  or  re- 
lation, with  regard  to  otber  parts  of  the  sentence. 


Rule  19.]  SYNTAX.  183 

form,  or  from  the  negative  to  the  affirmative,  the  sub- 
ject or  nominative  is  always  resumed  :  as,  'He  is  rich, 
but  he  is  not  respectable.'  'He  is  not  rich,  but  he  is 
respectable.'  There  appears  to  be,  in  general,  equal 
reason  for  repeating  the  nominative,  and  resuming  the 
subject,  when  the  course  of  the  sentence  is  diverted  by 
a  change  of  the  mood  or  tense.  The  following  sentences 
may  therefore  be  improved.  'Anger  glances  into  the  breast 
of  a  wise  man,  but  will  rest  only  in  «he  bosom  of  fools ;' 
'but  rests  only  ;'  or,  Miut  it  will  rest  only.'  'Virtue  is  prais- 
ed by  many,  and  would  be  desired  also,  if  her  worth  were 
really  known  ;'  'and  she  would.'  'The  world  begins  to  re- 
cede, and  will  soon  disappear;'  'and  it  will ' 

RULE  XIX. 

Some  conjunctions  require  the  indicative, 
some  the  conjunctive  mood,  after  them.  It  is 
a  general  rule,  that  when  something  contin- 
gent or  doubtful  is  implied,  the  subjunctive 
ought  to  be  used  :  as,  ^/f  I  were  to  write,  he 
would  not  regard  it ;'  'He  will  not  be  par- 
doned, U7iless  he  repent,^ 

Conjunctions  that  are  of  a  positive  and  ab- 
solute nature,  require  the  indicative  mood. 
^^s  virtue  advances^  so  vice  recedes  ;'  'He  is 
healthy,  because  he  is  temperate." 

The  conjunctions,  if,  though,  unless,  except,  whether,  &c. 
generally  require  the  subjunctive  mood  after  them  :  as,  'Ij 
thou  he  afflicted,  repine  not;'  '•Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will 
1  trust  in  him  ;'  *He  cannot  be  clean,  unless  he  wash  him- 
self;' 'No  power,  except  it  tvere  given  from  above ;'  'JVhe- 
ther  it  were  I  or  thejs  so  we  preach.'  But  even  these  con- 
junctions when  the  sentence  does  not  imply  doubt,  admit 
of  the  indicative  :    as,  'Though  he  is  poor,  he  is  contented.' 

The  following  exansple  may,  in  some  measure,  serve  to 
illustrate  the  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and  the 
indicative  moods.      ^Though  he  were  divinely  insjnredj  and 


184  ENGLISH  GRAMMAE.  (Rule  19. 

spoke  therefore  as  the  oracles  of  God,  with  supreme  author- 
ity ;  though  he  were  endued  with  supernatural  powers,  and 
could,  therefore,  have  confirmed  the  truth  of  what  he  utter- 
ed, by  miracles;  yet,  in  com{)liance  with  the  way  in  which 
human  nature  and  reasonable  creatures  are  usually  wrought 
upon,  he  reasoned.'  That  our  Saviour  was  divinely  inspi- 
red, and  endued  with  supernatural  powers,  are  positions 
that  are  here  taken  for  granted,  as  not  admitting  the  least 
doubt;  they  would  therefore  have  been  better  expressed  in 
the  indicative  mood  :  ^Though  he  7vas  divinely  inspired  ; 
though  he  was  endued  with  supernatural  powers.'  The 
subjunctive  is  used  in  the  like  improper  manner  in  the  fol- 
lowing example  :  ^Thm/gh  he  were  a  son,  yet  learned  he 
obedience,  by  the  thin2:3  which  he  suffered.'  But,  in  a 
similar  passage,  the  indicative,  with  great  propriety,  is  em- 
j)!oved  to  the  same  purpose;  ""Though  he  7vas  rich,  yet  for 
your  sakes  he  became  poor.' 

1 .  Lest,  and  that,  annexed  to  a  command  preceding,  ne- 
cessarily require  the  subjunctive  mood  :  as,  'Love  not  sleep, 
lest  thou  come  to  poverty  ;'  'Reprove  not  a  scorner,  lest  he 
hate  thee ;'     'Take  heeil  that  thou  speak  not  to  Jacob.' 

If,  with  but  following  it,  when  futurity  is  denoted,  re- 
quires the  subjunctive  mood  :  as,  '^If  he  do  but  touch  the 
bills,  they  shall  smoke ;'  '//*  he  be  but  discreet,  he  will  suc- 
ceed.' But  the  indicative  ought  to  be  used,  on  this  occa- 
sion, when  future  time  is  not  sijrnified  :  as,  'I/*,  in  this  ex- 
pression, he  does  but  jest,  no  offence  should  be  taken ;'  ''If 
she  is  but  sincere,  1  am  happy.'  The  same  distinction  ap- 
plies to  the  following  forms  of  expression  :  '11  he  do  submit, 
it  will  be  from  necessity;'  'Though  he  decs  submit,  he  is 
not  convinced  ;'  'If  thou  do  not  reward  this  service,  he 
uill  be  discouraged;'  'If  thou  dost  heartily  forgive  him, 
endeavor  to  forget  the  offence.' 

2.  In  the  following  instances,  the  conjunction  that,  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  seems  to  bo  improperly  accom{>anied 
with  the  subjunctive  mood.  SSo  nmch  she  dreaded  his  ty- 
ranny, that  the  fate  of  her  friend  she  dare  not  lament.'  'He 
reasoned  so  artfully,  that  bis  friends  would  listen,  and  think 
[that]  he  were  not  wrong.' 


Rule  .9.)  SYNTAX.  185 

3.  The  same  conjunction  governing  both  (he  indicative 
jin(i  the  subjunctive  moods,  in  the  same  sentence,  and  in  the 
siune  circumstances,  seems  to  be  a  great  impropriety  :  as  in 
these  instances.  If  there  be  bui  one  body  of  legishitors,  it 
is  no  belter  than  a  tyranny;  if  there  are  only  two,  there 
^vill  want  a  cas^iing  voice.'  'Jfd  man  have  a  hundred  sheep, 
and  one  ol"  them  is  gone  astray,'  &c. 

4.  Almost  all  the  irregularities,  in  the  construction  of 
any  language,  have  arisen  from  the  ellipsis  of  some  words 
which  were  originally  inserted  in  tlie  sentence,  and  made  it 
regular;  and  it  is  fjrobahle,  (hat  this  has  been  the  case  with 
respect  to  the  conjunctive  form  of  words,  now  in  use;  which 
will  ap|)ear  from  tlie  following  eKam[)les  :  'We  shall  over- 
take him  though  he  run  i  that  is,  'though  he  should  run.'' 
^Unless  he  act  prudently,  he  will  not  accomplish  his  pur- 
pose;' that  is,  'unless  be  shall  act  prudently.'  'If  he  sue- 
C€ed  and  obtain  his  end,  he  will  not  be  the  happier  for  it;' 
that  is,  'If  he  should  succeed,  and  67to?//r/ obtain  his  end.' 
These  remarks  and  examples  are  designed  to  shew  the  ori- 
ginal of  our  present  conjunctive  forms  of  expression ;  and 
to  enable  the  student  to  examine  ihe  propriety  of  using 
tliem,  by  tracing  the  words  in  question  to  their  proper  ori- 
gin and  ancient  connexions.  Bui  it  is  necessary  to  be  more 
particular  on  this  subject,  and  therefore  we  shall  add  a  few 
observations  respecting  it. 

That  part  of  the  verb,  which  grammarians  calf  the  pres- 
ent tense  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  has  a  future  signification. 
This  is  eliected  by  varying  the  terminations  of  ihe  second 
and  third  [)ersons  singular  of  the  indicative ;  as  will  be  evi- 
dent from  the  following  examples:  'If  thou  prosper,  thou 
shouldst  be  thankful ;'  'Unless  he  studi/  more  closely,  he 
Will  never  be  learned.'  Some  writers  however  would  ex- 
press these  sentiments  without  those  variations ;  'If  thou 
prosperest,^  &c.  'Unless  he  studies,^  &c. :  and  as  there  is 
.:Teat  diversity  of  practice  in  this  point,  it  is  proper  to  oiter 

he  learners  a  few  remarks,  to  assist  them  in  distinguishing 
die  right  application  of  these  different  forms  of  expression. 
It  may  be  considered  as  a  rule,  that  the  changes  of  termina- 
tion are  necessary,  when  these  two  circumstances  concur  ; 

Ist,  When  the  subject  is  of  a  dubious  and  contingent  na- 


186  ExNGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  19 

ture  :  ami  2d,  When  the  verb  has  a  reference  to  future  time. 
In  the  following  sentences,  both  these  circumstances  will 
be  found  to  unite:  'If  thou  injure  another,  thou  wilt  hurt 
thyself:'  *He  has  a  hard  heart;  anil  if  he  continue  impen- 
itent, he  must  suffer;'  'He  will  rafiintain  his  principles, 
though  he  lose  his  estate  ;'  'Whether  he  succeed  or  not,  his 
intention  is  l.udable  ;'  'If  he  be  not  prosperous,  he  will  not 
repine ;'  'If  a  man  smite  his  servant,  and  he  dic,^  &c.  Ex- 
odus xxi.  20.  In  all  these  examples,  the  things  signified 
by  the  verbs  are  uncertain,  and  refer  to  future  time.  But 
in  the  instances  which  follow,  future  time  is  not  referred  to; 
and  therefore  a  different  construction  takes  place:  'If  thou 
livest  virtuously,  thou  art  happy  ;'  'Unless  he  mcatis  what 
he  says,  he  is  doubly  faithless ;'  'If  he  allows  the  excel- 
lence of  virtue,  he  does  not  regard  her  precepts;'  'Though 
he  seems  to  he  simple  and  artles3,  he  has  deceived  us ;' 
'Whether  virtue  is  better  than  rank  or  wealth,  admits  not 
of  any  dispute;'  'If  thou  bclitvest  with  all  ihy  heart,  thou 
mayst,'  <fec.  Acts  viii.  37.  There  are  many  sentences,  in- 
troduced by  cdujunctions,  in  which  neither  contingency 
nor  futurity  is  denoted ;  as,  'Though  he  excels  her  ia 
knowledge,  she  far  exceeds  him  in  virtue.'  'I  have  no 
doubt  of  his  principles  :  but  if  he  bdieves  the  truths  of  re- 
ligion, he  does  not  act  according  to  them.' 

That  both  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futuri- 
ty are  necessary,  as  tests  of  the  propriety  of  altering  the 
terminations,  will  be  evident,  by  inspecting  the  following 
examples;  which  shew  that  there  are  instances  in  which 
neither  of  the  circumstances  alone  implies  the  other.  I  a 
the  three  examples  following,  contingency  is  denoted,  but 
not  futurity.  'If  he  thinks  as  he  S[)eaks,  he  may  safely  be 
trusted.'  *If  he  is  now  disposed  to  it,  I  will  perform  the 
operation.'  *He  acts  uprightly,  unless  he  deceives  me.'  In 
the  following  sentences,  futurity  is  signified,  but  not  con- 
tingency. *As  soon  as  the  sun  sets^  it  will  be  cooler.'  *As 
the  autumn  advances^  these  birds  will  gradually  emigrate.' 

It  appears,  from  the  tenor  of  the  examples  adduced,  that 
the  rules  above  mentioned  may  be  extended  to  Mssrrt,  that 
\a  cases  wherein  coaliugency  and  futurity  do  not  concur,  it 


Rule  19.)  SYNTAX.  187 

is  not  proper  fo  turn  the  verb  from  its  si2;nification  of  pres- 
ent time,  nor  to  vary  its  form  or  termination.  The  verb 
would  then  he  in  the  indicative  mood,  whatever  conjunc- 
tions mi^ht  attend  it.  If  these  rules,  which  seem  to  form 
the  true  distinction  between  the  subjuuctive  and  the  indic- 
ative mOi)ds,  in  this  tense,  were  ado[)ted  and  estahlislied  in 
practice,  we  shouhi  hnve,  on  this  point,  a  priaciph'  of  de- 
cision simple  and  precise,  ^\n\  readily  applicaide  to  ?-very 
case  that  might  occur.  It  will,  doubtless,  som<  times  hap- 
pen, that,  on  tins  occasion,  as  well  as  on  m  \ny  other  occa- 
sions, a  strict  adherence  to  2;r  immatical  rules,  would  render 
the  language  stiff  and  formal ;  but  when  cas^s  of  this  sort 
oc/ur,  it  is  l>etter  to  give  the  expression  a  (iitferent  turn, 
I  tb4n  to  violate  2:rammar,  for  the  sake  of  ease,  or  even  of  el- 
egance.      See  Rule  14.     Note  2. 

5.  On  the  form  of  the  auxiliaries  in  the  compound  tenses 
of  the  subjunctive  mood,  it  seems  proper  to  make  a  few  ob- 
servations. Some  writers  e'xpress  themselves  in  the  per- 
fect tense  as  follows  :  'If  thou  have  determined,  we  must 
submit;'  •'Unless  he  hare  consented,  the  writing  will  be 
void.'  But  we  believe  that  few  authors  of  critical  sagaci- 
ty, write  in  this  manner.  The  proper  form  seems  to  be,  "U 
thou  hast  determined;  unless  he  fert5  consented,"  &r  con- 
formably to  what  we  meet  with  in  the  bible  :  4  have  sur- 
named  thee,  though  thou  hast  not  known  me.'  isa.  xlv.  4. 
'What  is  the  hope  of  the  hypocrite,  thougli  he  hath  gained,' 
&c.    Job  xxvii.  8.     See  also  Acts  xxviii.  4. 

6.  In  the  pluperfect  and  future  tenses,  we  sometimes 
meet  with  such  expressions  as  these:  4f  thou  Aac?  applied 
thyself  diligently,  thou  wouldst  have  reaped  the  advantage;' 
'Unless  thou  shall  speak  the  whole  truth,  we  cannot  deter- 
mine;' 'If  thou  will  undertake  the  business,  there  is  little 
doubt  of  success.'  This  mode  of  expressing  the  auxiliaries 
does  not  appear  to  be  warranted  by  ihe  general  practice  of 
correct  writers.  They  should  be  hadst,  shall  and  wilt:  and 
we  find  them  used  in  this  form,  in  the  sacred  Scriptures. 

'If  thou  hadst  known,'  Sic.  Luke  xix.  42.  'If  thou  hadst 
been  here,'  &c.  John  xi.  21.  'If  thou  wilty  thou  canst 
make  me  clean.'  Matt.  viii.  2,  See  also  2  iBamuel  ii.  27, 
Matt,  xvii,  4, 


188  Ex\GLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  19. 

7.  The  second  person  singular  of  the  imperfect  tense  in 
the  subjunctive  mood,  is  also  very  frequently  varied  in  its 
termination  :  as.  'If  thou  loved  him  truly,  thou  wouklst  ohey 
him;'  *Thou<^h  thou  did  conform,  thou  hast  gained  noth- 
ing by  it.'  This  variation,  however,  appears  to  be  improp- 
er. Our  present  version  of  the  Scriptures,  which  we  again 
refer  to  as  a  good  grammatical  authority  in  points  of  tliis 
nature,  decides  against  it.  'If  thou  knovcst  the  g\ity&:c, 
John  iv.  10.  'li'  thou  didst  receive  it,  why  dost  thou  glory:' 
6zc.  1  Cor.  iv.  7.  See  also  Daniel  v.  22.  But  it  is  |)ropei 
to  remark,  th*at  the  form  of  the  verb  to  he^  when  used  sub- 
junctively  in  the  imperfect  tense,  is  indeed  very  considera- 
bly and  properly  varied  from  that  which  it  has  in  the  im- 
perfect of  the  indicative  mood;  as  the  learner  will  perceive 
by  turning  to  the  conjugation  of  that  verb."^ 

8.  It  may  not  he  superfiuons  also  to  observe,  that  the 
auxiliaries  of  the  potential  mood,  when  ap[)lietl  to  the  sub- 
junctive, do  not  change  the  termination  of  the  second  per- 
son singufar.  We  [»roperly  s:iy,  Mf  thou  mayst  or  canst  go ;' 
*  riiough  thou  mightst  live;'  *lJnhs3  thou  couldst  read;' 
*If  thou  nouldst  learn ;'  and  not  'If  thou  ma\j  or  can  go,'&c. 
It  is  sufficient,  on  this  point,  to  adduce  the  authorities  of 
Johnson  and  Lowth  :  'If  thou  shouldst  go  :'  Johnson,  'If 
thou  mayst^  inightst,  or  couldst  love;'  Lowth.  Some  au- 
thors think,  that  when  that  expresses  the  motive  or  end,  the 
termination  of  these  auxiliaries  should  bn  varied  :  as,  'I  ad- 
vise thee  that  thou  may  beware;'  'He  checked  thee,  that 
thou  should  not  presume  :'  but  there  does  not  appear  to  be 
any  ground  for  this  exception.  If  the  expression  of  'condi- 
tion, doubt,  contingency,'  <fec.  does  not  warrant  a  change  in 
the  form  of  these  auxiliaries,  why  should  they  have  it,  when 
a  motive  or  end  is  expressed  ?  The  translators  of  the  Scrip- 
tures do  not  appear  to  have  made  the  diblinction  contended 
for.  'Thou  buildest  the  wall,  that  thou  7tiayst  be  their  king.' 
Neh.  vi.  6.  'There  is  forgiveness  with  thee,  that  thou  mayst 
be  feared.'  Ps.  cxxx.  4. 


*See  observations  on  the  manner  of  conjugating  the  subjunc- 
tive mood,  at  page  81,  96 — 98. 


Rule  It).]  SYISTAX.  189 

From  the  preceding  observations  under  this  rule,  it  ap« 
pears,  that  with  respect  to  what  is  termed  the  present  tense 
of  any  verb,  when  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and 
futurity  concur,  it  is  proper  to  vary  the  terminations  of  the 
second  and  third  persons  singular;  that  without  the  concur- 
rence of  those  circumstances,  the  terminations  should  not 
be  altered ;  and  that  the  verb  and  the  auxiliaries  of  the  three 
past  tenses,  uud  the  auxiliaries  of  the  future,  undergo  no  al- 
terations whatever:  except  the  imperfect  o{  the  verb  to  be, 
which,  in  cases  denoting  contingency,  is  varied  in  all  the 
persons  of  the  singular  number.     See  page  84.    The  Note. 

After  perusing  what  has  been  advanced  on  this  subject,  it 
will  be  natural  for  the  student  to  inquire,  what  is  the  extent 
of  the  subjunctive  mood  ?  Some  grammarians  think  it  ex- 
tends only  to  what  is  called  the  present  tense  of  verbs  gene- 
rally, under  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity ; 
and  to  the  imperfect  tense  of  the  verb  to  be,  when  it  denotes 
contingency  :  because  in  these  tenses  only,  the  form  of  the 
verb  admits  of  variati(m  ;  and  they  suppose  that  it  is  varia- 
tion merely  which  const itutt^s  the  distinction  of  moods.  It 
is  the  opinion  of  other  grammarians,  that,  besides  the  two 
cases  just  mentioned,  all  verbs  in  the  three  past,  and  the 
two  future  tenses,  are  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  when  they 
denote  contingency  or  uncertainty,  though  they  have  not 
any  change  of  termination  ;  and  that  when  contingency  is 
not  signified,  the  verb,  through  all  these  five  tenses,  belongs 
to  the  indicative  mood,  whatever  conjunction  may  attend 
it.  They  think,  that  the  definition  and  nature  of  the  sub" 
junctive  mood,  have  no  reference  to  change  of  termination, 
but  that  they  refer  merely  to  the  manner  of  the  being,  ac- 
tion, or  pMSsion,  signified  by  the  verb  ;  and  that  the  sub- 
junctive mood  may  as  properly  exist  without  a  variation  of 
the  verb,  as  the  infinitive  rnoud,  which  h;>s  no  terminations 
different  from  those  of  the  indicative.  The  decision  of  this 
point  may  not,  by  some  grammarians,  be  thought  of  much 
consequence  But  the  rules  which  scertain  the  propriety 
of  varying,  or  not  varying,  the  terminations  of  the  verb, 
will  certainly  be  deemed  important.  These  rules  may  be 
well  oi  s  rved,  without  a  uniformity  of  S'^ntim^nt  res{)ecting 
the  nature  and  limits  of  the  subjunctive  mood.     For  further 


190  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  19. 

remarks    on    the    subject,    See   pages    73 — 81.       96 — 98. 
102— 103> 

9.  Some  conjunctions  have  their  correspondent  conjunc- 
tions belonging  to  them,  so  that,  in  the  subsequent  niember 
of  the  sentence,  the  latter  answers  to  the  former  :  as, 

1st,  Though — yet^  nevertheless  :  as,  'Though  he  was  rich, 
yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor.' 

2(1,  Whtihir — or :  as,  'Whether  he  will  go  or  not,  I  can- 
not tell.' 

3d,  Either — or  :  as,  'I  will  either  send  it  or  bring  it  my- 
gelf.' 

4th:,  N'ithcr — nor :  as,  'Neither  thou  nor  I  am  able  to 
com|)ass  it.' 

5th,  As — as:  expressing  a  comparison  of  equality:  as, 
*-  he  is  as  amiable  as  her  sister.' 

0th,  As — so:  exj)ressing  a  comparison  of  equality:  as, 
Is  the  stars,  so  shall  thy  seed  be.' 

7th,  As — .90 ;  expressiijo;  a  comparison  of  quality  :  as,  'As 
ih*.  one  dieth,  so  dieth  the  other.' 

8th,  So — as :  with  a  verb  expressing  a  comparison  of  e- 
(|nality  :  as,  'To  see  thy  glory,  so  as  1  have  seen  thee  la 
the  sanclury.' 


''^We  have  stated,  for  the  sttideat's  information,  the  different 
opinions  of  graminuriHus.  rcspectnig  llie  En^^lish  Snhjunctivc 
Mood:,  First,  that  which  supposes  there  is  no  such  mood  in  our 
languasje  :  Secondly,  that  which  extends  it  no  farther  than  the 
variitions  of  the  verb  extend  :  Thinliy,  that  which  we  have  a- 
dopted  and  explained  at  large;  and  which,  in  p;ciieral,  corresponds 
with  the  views  of  the  ino^t  approved  writeis  on  English  Gram- 
mar. We  ui ly  add  a  Fourth  opinion ;  wliich  appears  to  possess 
at  least  inncii  plausihility.  This  opinion  admits  the  arrangement 
we  have  given,  wilh  one  variation,  namely,  that  of  assigning  to 
the  first  tense  of  the  subjunctive,  two  forms  :  1st,  that  which 
sinaply  denotes  contingency  :  as,  'If  he  desires ity  I  will  perform 
the  operation;'  that  is,  *if  he  notv  desires  it  :'  2dly,  that  which 
denotes  l)oth  contingency  and  futurity  :  as,  'If  he  desire  it,  I  will 
perform  the  operation  ;*  that  is,  'if  lie  should  /tcrea/Ver  desire  it.* 
This  last  theory  of  the  sul'junctive  mood,  claims  the  merit  of  ren- 
dering the  whole  system  of  the  moods  consistent  and  regular  ;  of 
bei  jj;  more  conformable  than  any  other,  to  the  dednition  of  the 
si?'>juMctive  ;  and  of  not  n  Porring  to  the  indicative  moo<l  forms  o? 
^^'Tpression,  which  ill  accord  with  its  simplicity  and  nature. 


Rule  19.)  SYNTAX.  191 

9th,  So — as  :  with  a  ne«:ative  and  an  adjective  express- 
ing a  comparison  of  quantity  :  as,  'Pompey  was  not  so  great 
a  man  as  Caesar.' 

loth,  So — that:  expressing  a  consequence:  as,  *^He  was 
so  fatigued,  that  he  could  scarcely  move.' 

The  conjunction  or  and  nor  may  often  he  used,  with 
nearly  equal  proprietj^  'The  king,  whose  character  was 
not  sutficiently  vigorous,  nor  decisive,  assented  to  the  meas- 
ure.' In  this  sentence,  or  would  perhaps  have  heen  better: 
but,  in  general,  nor  seems  to  repeat  the  negation  in  the  for- 
mer part  of*  the  sentence,  and  therefore  gives  more  empha- 
sis to  the  expression. 

10.  Conjunctions  are  often  improperly  used,  both  singly 
and  in  pairs.  The  following  are  examples  of  this  impro- 
priety. 'The  relations  ai'<^  so  uncertain,  as  that  they  re- 
quire a  great  deal  of  examination  :'  it  should  be,  Hhat  they 
require,'  &c.  'There  w»s  no  man  so  sanguine,  who  did  not 
apprehend  some  ill  consequences  :'  it  ought  to  be,  'so  san- 
guine as  not  to  apprehend,'  &:c. :  or,  'no  man,  how  sanguine 
soever,  who  did  not,'  &c.  'To  trust  in  him  is  no  more  but 
to  acknowledge  his  power.'  'This  is  no  other  but  the  gate 
of  paradise.'  In  both  these  instances,  but  should  be  than. 
'We  should  sufficiently  weigh  the  objects  of  our  hope  ;  whe- 
ther they  are  such  as  we  may  reasonably  expect  tVom  thena 
what  they  purpose,'  &c.  It  ought  to  be,  'that  we  may  rea- 
sonably,'&c.  'The  duke  had  not  behaved  with  that  loyal- 
ty as  he  ought  to  have  done;'  ""tvith  which  he  ought.'  'In 
the  order  as  they  lie  in  his  preface  '  it  should  be,  'in  order 
as  they  lie  ;'  or,  'in  the  order  in  which  they  lie.'  'Such 
sharp  replies  that  cost  him  his  life  ;'  'as  cost  him,'  &c.  'It 
he  were  truly  that  scarecrow,  as  he  is  now  commonly  paint- 
ed ;'  '6wc/i  a  scarecrow,'  <fcc.  '1  wish  I  could  do  that  jus- 
tice to  his  memory,  to  oblige  the  painters,'  &c. ;  'do  such 
justice  as  to  oblige,'  &c. 

There  is  a  peculiar  neatness  in  a  sentence  beginning 
with  the  conjunctive  form  of  a  verb.  ^Were  there  no  differ- 
ence, there  would  be  no  choice.' 

A  double  conjunctive,  in  two  correspondent  clauses  of  a 
Eeutence,  is  ^ometimts  made  use  of ;  as,  '•Had  he  done  thi^, 


192  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  20. 

he  Aa/'/ escaped  ;'  ^Had  fbe  Ilmifatior.s  on  the  prerog;a(ive 
heen,  in  his  time,  quite  fi?ied  and  certain,  his  integrity  had 
nfiH<le  him  regard,  as  sacred,  the  boundaries  of  the  constitu- 
tion.' The  sentence  in  the  common  form  would  have  read 
thus:  'If  the  limitations  on  the  preros^ative  had  been,  &c. 
his  integrity  would  have  made  him  regard,'  &c. 

The  parlicle  as,  when  it  is  connected  with  the  pronoun 
such,  has  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun  :  as,  ^Let  such  as 
presume  to  advise  others,  look  well  to  their  own  conduct ;' 
which  is  equivalent  to,  'hA  ihcm  who  presume,'  t^'c.  But 
when  used  by  itself,  this  particle  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
conjunction,  or  perhaps  an  adverb.     See  the  Kf.Y. 

Our  langUHge  wantsr  a  conjunction  adapted  to  familiar 
style,  ecjuivalent  to  not ni(h standing.  The  words  for  all 
that,  seem  to  be  too  low.  'The  word  was  in  the  moulh  of 
every  one,  but,  for  all  that,  the  sutject  may  still  be  a  se- 
cret.' 

In  regard  that,  is  solemn  and  antiqunted  :  because  would 
do  much  better  in  the  following  sentence.  *It  cannot  be 
otherwise,  in  regard  tbat  the  French  prosody  differs  from 
that  of  every  other  language.' 

The  word  cxc/;/  is  far  preferable  to  ether  than.  Mt  ad- 
mitted of  no  effechial  cure  other  than  amputation  '  Except 
is  also  to  be  preferred  to  all  but,  'They  were  happy  all 
but  the  stranger.' 

In  the  two  follo\Ning  phra&rg,  the  conjunction  «.?  is  im- 
properly: omitted  :  'Which  nobody  presumes,  or  is  so  san- 
guine    to  hope.'     'I  must,  however,  be  so  just     to  own.' 

A  -  -  A 

The  conjunction  that  is  often  properly  omitted,  and  un- 
derstood:  as,  'I  beg  you  would  come  to  me;'  'See  thou  do 
it  not  ;'  instead  of 'that  you  would,'  'that  thou  do.'  But  in 
the  following  and  mmy  simih»r  phrases,  this  conjunction 
were  much  better  inserted  :  'Yet  it  is  reason  the  memory 
of  their  virtues  remain  to  posterity.'  It  should  be,  'yet  it 
is  just  that  the  memory,'  &c. 

RULE  XX. 

When  Iho  qualities  of  different  things  are 
compared,  the  latter  noun  or  pronoun  is  not 


Rule  20.)  SYNTAX.  193 

governed  by  Ihe  conjunclion  than  or  as ,  but  a- 
grees  with  the  verb,  or  is  governed  by  the  verb 
or  the  preposition,  expressed  or  understood  : 
as,  'Thou  art  wiser  than  I;'  that  is,  *than  I  am.' 
'They  Joved  hitn  more  than  me ;'  i.  e.  'more 
than  they  loved  me.'  'The  sentiment  is  well 
expressed  by  Plato,  but  much  better  by  Solo- 
mon than  him  ;'  that  is,  'than  by  him.'^ 

The  propriety  or  impropriefy  of  many  phrases,  in  the 
preceding,  as  well  as  in  some  other  forms,  may  be  discover- 
ed, by  supplying  the  words  that  are  not  expressed ;  which 
will  be  evident  from  the  following  instances  of  erroneous 
construction.  *He  can  read  better  than  me.'  'He  is  as 
goo<l  as  her.'  'Whether  I  be  present  or  no.'  'Who  did 
this  ?  Me.'  By  supplying  the  words  understood  in  each  of 
these  phrases,  their  impropriety  and  governing  rule  will  ap- 
pear :  as,  'Better  than  I  can  read;'  'As  good  as  she  is;' 
'Present  or  not  present ;'     '1  did  it.' 

1.  By  not  attending  to  this  rule,  many  errors  have  been 
committed ;  a  number  of  which  are  subjoined,  as  a  furthei* 
caution  and  direction  to  the  learner.  'Thou  art  a  much 
greater  loser  than  me  by  his  death.'  'She  suifers  hourly 
more  than  me.'  'We  contributed  a  third  more  than  the 
Dutch,  who  were  obliged  to  the  same  proportion  more  than 
us.'  'King  Charles,  and  more  than  him,  the  duke  and  the 
poj)ish  faction,  were  at  liberty  to  form  new  schemes,'  'The 
drift  of  all  his  sermons  was,  to  prepare  the  Jews  for  the  re- 
ception of  a  prophet,  mightier  than  him,  and  whose  shoes  he 
was  not  worthy  to  bear.'  'It  was  not  the  work  of  so  emi- 
nent an  author,  as  him  to  whom  it  was  first  imputed.'  'A 
stone  is  heavy,  and  the  sand  weighty ;  but  a  fool's  wrath  is 
heavier  than  them  both.'  'If  the  king  give  us  leave,  we 
may  perform  the  office  as  well  as  them  that  do.'  In  these 
passages  it  ought  to  be,  'I,  ?w,  he,  ihcy^  respectivel3^' 

W^hen  the  relative  who  immediately  follows  than,  it  seems 
to  form  an  exception  to  the  20th  rule ;  for  in  that  connex- 


*  See  the  Tenth  edition  of  the  Key  :  Rule  xx.     The  Note, 
R 


194  ENGLISH  GRAMI^IAR.  (Rule  21. 

ion,  the  relative  must  be  in  the  objective  case;  as,  'Alfred, 
than  whom,  a  greater  king  never  reigned,'  <S:c.  'Beelzebub, 
than  whom,  Satan  excepteri,  none  liigher  sat,'  <&rc.  It  is  re- 
markable that  in  such  instances,  if  the  personal  [)ronoun 
were  used,  it  wouUl  be  in  the  nominative  case  :  as,  'A  great- 
er king  never  reigned  than  /?€,'  that  is,  'than  he  was.'  .'Beel- 
zebub, than  A^,' &c. ;  that  is,  'than  he  sat.'  The  phrase 
than  whoMy  is,  however,  avoided  by  the  best  modern  writers. 

RULE  XXL 

To  avoid  disagreeable  repetitions,  and  to 
express  our  ideas  in  few  words,  an  ellipsis,  or 
omission  of  some  words,  is  frequently  admit- 
ted. Instead  of  saying,  'He  was  a  learned 
man,  lie  was  a  wise  man,  and  he  was  a  good 
man  ;'  w^e  make  use  of  the  ellipsis,  and  say, 
*He  was  a  learned,  wise,  and  good  man.' 

When  the  omission  of  words  would  obscure 
the  sentence,  weaken  its  force,  or  be  attended 
with  an  impropriety,  they  must  be  expressed. 
In  the  sentence,  *We  are  apt  to  love  who  love 
us,"  the  word  //ic?^  should  be  supplied.  *A  beau- 
tiful fiidd  and  trees,'  is  not  proper  language. 
It  should  be,  'Beautiful  fields  and  trees;'  or, 
*A  beautiful  field  and  fine  trees.' 

Aloiosf  all  compound  sentences  are  more  or  less  ellipti- 
cal ;  some  examples  of  which  may  be  seen  under  the  differ- 
ent parls  of  speech. 

1.  The  ellipsis  of  the  article  is  thus  used  :  *A  man,  wo- 
man, and  child ;'  that  is,  'a  man,  a  woman,  and  a  child.* 
*  A  house  and  ,2::irden  f  that  is,  'a  house  and  a  j2;arden.'  'The 
sun  and  moon  ;'  that  is,  'the  sun  and  the  moon.'  'The  day 
and  hour;'  that  is,  'the  day  and  the  hour.'  In  all  these  in- 
stances, the  article  being  once  expressed,  the  repetition  of 
it  hecomf's  unnecessary.  There  is,  however,  an  exception 
to  this  observation,  whea  some  peculiar  emphasis  requires  a 


eLLE21.)  SYNTAX.  195 

repetition  ;  as  in  the  following  sentence.  *Not  only  the 
year,  but  the  day  and  the  hour.'  In  this  case,  the  ellij)sis 
of  the  last  article  woukl  be  improper.  When  a  different 
form  of  the  article  is  requisite,  the  article  is  also  properly 
repeated  :  as,  'a  house  and  an  orchard ;'  instead  of  'a  house 
<i nd  orchard.' 

2.  The  noun  is  frequently  omitted  in  the  following  man- 
ner. 'The  h\\\s  of  God  and  m  in  ;'  that  is,  'the  laws  of  God 
and  the  laws  of  m;in.'  In  some  very  emphatical  expres- 
sions, the  ellipsis  should  not  he  used  :  as,  'Christ  the  power 
of  God,  and  the  wisdom  of  God  ;'  which  is  more  emphatical 
ihan,  'Christ  the  power  and  wisdom  of  God.' 

3  The  elli[)si3  of  the  adjective  is  used  in  the  following 
manner.  'A  delightful  garden  and  orchard  ;'  that  is,  'a  de- 
lightful garden  and  a  delightful  orchard  '  'A  little  man  and 
woman  ;'  that  is,  'a  little  man  and  a  little  woman.'  In  such 
elliptical  expressions  as  these,  the  ailjective  ought  to  have 
exactly  the  same  signification,  and  to  be  quite  as  proper, 
when  joined  to  the  latter  suf>stantive  as  to  the  Ibrmer;  oth- 
erwise the  ellipsis  should  not  be  admitted. 

Sometimes  the  ellipsis  is  improperly  applied  to  nouns  of 
different  numbers  :  as,  'A  magnificent  house  and  gardens.' 
In  this  case  it  is  belter  to  use  another  adjective;  as,  'A 
magnificent  house  and  fine  gardens.' 

4.  The  followiag  is  the  ellipsis  of  \\\e  pronoun.  'I  love 
and  fear  him ;'  that  is,  '1  love  him,  and  I  fear  him.'  'My 
house  and  lant!s;'  that  is,  'my  house  and  my  lands.'  In 
these  instances  the  ellipsis  may  take  place  with  propriety; 
but  if  we  would  be  more  express  and  emphatical,  it  must 
not  be  used  :  as,  'His  friends  and  his  foes;'  'My  sons  and 
iny  daughters.' 

In  some  of  the  common  forms  of  speech,  the  relative  pro- 
noun is  usually  omitted  :  as,  'This  is  the  man  they  love  ;' 
instead  of,  'This  is  the  man  whom  they  love.'  'These  are 
the  goods  they  bought;'  for,  'These  are  the  goods  which 
they  bought.' 

in  complex  sentences,  it  is  much  better  to  have  the  rela 
ive  pronoun  expressed :  as  it  is  more  proper  to  say,  *Th<^> 


196      ».  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  21. 

posture  in  which  I  lay,'  than,  'In  the  posture  I  lay  :'  'The 
horse  on  which  1  rode,  fell  down ;'  than,  'The  horse  1  rode, 
fell  down.' 

The  antecedent  and  the  relative  connect  the  parts  of  a 
senfence  together,  and,  to  prevent  obscurity  and  confusion, 
should  answer  to  each  other  with  great  exactness.  'We 
speak  that  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  we  have  seen.' 
Here  the  ellipsis  is  manifestly  improper,  and  ought  to  be 
supplied  :  as,  'We  speak  that  which  we  do  know,  and  testi- 
fy that  which  we  have  seen.' 

5.  The  ellipsis  of  the  verb  is  used  in  the  following  in- 
stances. 'The  man  was  old  and  crafty  ;'  that  is,  'the  man 
was  old,  and  the  man  was  crafty.'  'She  was  young,  and 
beautiful,  and  good  ;'  that  is,  'she  was  young,  she  was  beau- 
tiful, and  she  was  good.'  'Thou  art  poor,  and  wretched, 
and  miserable,  and  blind,  and  naked.'  If  we  would  fill  up 
the  ellipsis  in  the  last  sentence,  thmi  art  ought  to  be  repeat- 
ed before  each  of  the  adjectives. 

If,  in  such  enumeration,  we  choose  to  point  out  one  prop- 
erty above  the  rest,  that  property  must  be  placed  last,  and 
the  ellipsis  supplied  :  as,  "She  is  young  and  beautiful,  and 
she  is  good.' 

'I  went  to  see  and  hear  him  ;'  that  is,  'I  went  to  see  him, 
and  I  went  to  hear  him.'  In  this  instance  there  is  not  only 
an  ellipsis  of  the  governing  verb  1  went,  but  likew  ise  of  the 
sign  of  the  infinitive  mood,  which  is  governed  by  it. 

Do,  did,  have,  had,  shall,  will,  may,  might,  and  the  rest  of 
the  auxiliaries  of  the  compound  tenses,  are  frequently  used 
alone,  to  spare  the  repetition  of  the  verb :  as,  'He  regards 
his  word,  but  thou  dost  not ;'  that  is,  'dost  not  regard  it.' 
'We  succeeded,  but  tbey  did  not ;'  'did  not  succeed.'  'I 
liave  learned  my  task,  but  thou  hast  not ;'  'hast  not  learned.' 
'They  must,  and  they  shall  be  punished  ;'  that  is,  'they  must 
be  punished.'     See  the  Kb:y. 

6.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adverb  is  used  in  the  following  man- 
ner. 'He  spoke  and  acted  wisely  ;'  that  is,  'he  spoke  wise- 
ly, and  he  acted  wisely.'  'Thrice  I  went  and  offered  my 
service;'  that  is,  'Ihrice  I  went,  and  thrice  1  offered  ray 
service.' 


Ri;LE21.)  SYNTAX.  197 

7.  The  ellipsis  of  the  preposition,  as  well  as  of  the  verb, 
is  seen  in  the  following  instances:  *He  went  into  the  ab* 
beys,  halls,  and  public  buihlings  ;'  that  is,  *he  went  into  the 
abbeys,  he  went  into  the  halls,  and  he  went  into  the  public 
buildings.'  *He  also  went  through  all  the  streets  and  lanes 
of  the  city ;'  that  is,  'through  ail  the  streets,  and  through 
all  the  lanes,'  &:c.  'He  spoke  to  every  man  and  woman 
there  ;'  that  is,  'to  every  man  and  to  every  woman.'  'This 
day,  next  month,  l.isl  year;'  that  is,  'on  this  day,  in  the 
next  month,  in  the  last  year;'  'The  Lord  do  that  which 
seemeth  him  good ;'  that  is,  'which  seemeth  to  him.' 

8.  The  ellipsis  of  the  conjunction  is  as  follows  :  'They 
conf<pss  the  power,  wisdom,  goodness,  and  love,  of  their 
Cr<^ator;'  that  is,  'the  power,  and  wisdom^  and  goodness, 
and  love  oi',' &c.  'Though  I  love  him,  I  do  not  flatter 
him ;'  that  is,  'though  I  love  him,  yet  1  do  not  fiatter  him.' 

9.  The  ellipsis  of  the  interjection  is  not  very  common  :  it 
however  is  sometimes  used  :  as,  'Oh !  pity  and  shame !' 
that  is,  'Oh  pity  !  Oh  shame  !' 

As  the  elli[)sls  occurs  in  almost  every  sentence  in  the 
English  language,  numerous  examples  of  it  miglit  be  given  f 
but  only  a  few  more  can  be  admitted  here. 

In  the  following  instance  there  is  a  very  considerable 
one :  'He  will  often  argue,  that  if  this  part  of  our  trade  were 
wer  cultivated,  we  should  gain  from  one  nation;  and  if  a- 
nother,  from  another ;'  that  is,  'He  will  often  argue,  that  if 
this  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should  gaia 
from  one  nation,  and  if  another  part  of  our  trade  were  well 
cultivated,  we  should  gain  from  another  nation.' 

The  following  instances,  though  short,  contain  much  of 
the  ellipsis  :  'Wo  is  me ;'  that  is,  'wo  is  to  me.'  'To  let 
blood  ;'  that  is,  'to  let  out  blood.*  *To  let  down  ;'  that  is, 
'to  let  it  fall  or  slide  down.'  'To  walk  a  mile  ;'  that  is,  'to 
walk  through  the  space  of  a  mile.'  'To  sleep  all  night ;' 
that  is,  'to  sleep  through  all  the  night.'  'To  go  a  fishing;* 
'To  go  a  hunting  ;'  that  is,  'to  go  on  a  fishing  voyage  or 
r2 


198  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  22 

jijsiness;'  ^to  go  on  a  hunting  party.'  ^I  dine  at  two  o'- 
clock ;'  that  is,  'at  two  of  the  clock.'  'By  sea,  by  h.nd, 
on  shore ;'    that  is,  *by  the  sea,  by  the  land,  on  the  shore.' 

10.  The  examples  that  follow  are  produced  to  shew  the 
impropriety  of  ellipsis  in  some  particular  cases.  'The  land 
was  alwa}  s  possessed,  during  pleasure,  by  those  intrusted 
with  the  command  ;  it  should  be,  'those  pcrso)h<(  intrusted,' 
or,  'those  7vho  were  intrusted.'  'If  he  had  read  further,  he 
would  have  found  several  of  his  objections  might  have  been 
spared;'  that  is,  *he  would  have  found //ifli  several  of  his 
objections,'  &c.  'There  is  nothing  men  are  more  deficient 
in,  than  knowing  their  own  characters.'  It  ought  to  be, 
'nothing  in  rchich  men  ;'  and,  'than  in  knowing.'  '1  scarce- 
ly know  any  part  of  natural  philosophy  would  yield  more 
variety  and  use :'  It  should  be,  'which  v,ould  yield,'  8cc. 
♦In  the  temper  of  mind  he  was  then  ;'  that  is,  'm  rvkich  he 
then  was.'  'The  little  satisfaction  and  consistency,  to  be 
found  in  most  of  the  systems  of  divinity  I  have  met  with, 
made  me  betake  myself  to  the  sole  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
tures:'  It  ou(rht  to  be,  ^which  are  to  be  found,'  and  'which 
I  have  met  with.'  'He  desired  they  might  go  to  the  altar 
together,  and  jointly  return  their  thanks  to  whom  only  they 
were  due ;'  that  is,  'to  him  to  whom,'  &c. 


RULE  XXII. 

All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  corres- 
pond to  each  other:  a  regular  and  dependent 
construction,  throuj^hout,  sliould  be  carefully 
preserved.  The  following  sentence  is  there- 
fore inaccurate  :  'He  was  more  beloved,  but 
not  so  much  admired,  as  Cinthio.'  More  vq- 
quires  than  aftei  it,  which  is  no  where  found 
in  the  sentence  It  should  be,  'He  was  more 
beloved  than  Cinthio,  but  not  so  much  admir- 
ed/ 


<Ule  22.)  SYNTAX.  199 

Til's  rule  may  be  considered  as  comprehend! njs;  ^1  the 
preceding  ones ;  and  it  will  also  apply  to  many  forms  of 
sentences,  which  none  of  those  rules  can  be  brought  to  bear 
upon.  Its  generality  m-dy  seem  to  render  it  useless  :  but 
by  ranging  under  it  a  number  of  varied  examples,  we  shall 
perceive  its  utility;  and  that  it  is  calculated  to  prove  the 
propriety  or  impropriety  of  many  modes  of  expression,  which 
the  less  genen  •  rules  cannot  determine. 

"This  dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book,  that 
has,  is,  or  shall  be  published.'  It  ought  lo  be^  Hhat  has 
been,  or  shall  be  published.''  'He  was  guided  by  interests 
always  different,  sometimes  contrary  to,  those  of  the  com- 
munity ;'     'different /r<ww/  or,  'always  different  from  those 

of  the  community,  and  sometimes  contrary  to  them.' 

'Will  it  be  urged  that  these  books  are  as  old,  or  even  older 
than  tradition  V  The  words,  'as  old,'  and  'older,'  cannot 
have  a  common  regimen  ;  it  should  be,  'as  old  as  tradition, 
or  even  older.'  'It  requires  few  talents  to  which  most  men 
are  not  born,  or  at  Ie.'st  may  not  acquire;'  'or  which,  at 
least,  tney  may  not  acquire.'  'The  court  of  chancer}^  fre- 
quently mitigates  and  breaks  the  teeth  of  the  common  law.' 
In  this  construction,  the  first  verb  is  said,  Ho  mitigate  the 
teeth  of  the  common  law,'  which  is  an  evident  solecism. 
'Mitigates  the  common  law,  and  breaks  the  teeth  of  it,' 
would  have  been  grammatical. 

'They  presently  grow  into  good  humor,  and  good  lan- 
guage towards  the  crown  ;'  'grow  into  good  language,'  is 
very  improper.  'There  is  never  wanting  a  set  of  evil  in* 
struments,  who  either  out  of  mad  zeal,  private  hatred,  or 
tllthy  lucre,  are  always  ready,'  &:c.  We  say  properly,  'A 
man  acts  out  of  mad  zeal,'  or,  'out  of  private  hatred ;'  but 
we  cannot  say,  if  we  would  speak  English,  'he  acts  out  of 
filthy  lucre.'  'To  double  her  kindness  and  caresses  of  me;' 
the  word  'kindness'  requires  to  be  followed  by  either  to  or 
for^  and  cannot  be  construed  with  the  preposition  of.  'Ne- 
ver was  man  so  teased,  or  suffered  half  the  uneasiness,  as  I 
have  done  this  evening :'  The  first  and  third  clauses,  viz. 
'Never  was  man  so  teased  as  I  have  done  this  evening,' 
cannot  be  joined  without  an  impropriety  ;  and  to  connect 
tlie  second  and  third,  the  word  that  must  be  substituted  for 


200  feNGLISII  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  22. 

as ;  *0r  suffered  half  the  uneasiness  that  I  have  done;'  or 
else,  *ha]f  so  much  uneasiness  as  I  have  suffered.' 

The  first  part  of  the  followins:  sentence  abounds  with  ad- 
ver!  s,  an<I  those  such  as  are  hardly  consistent  with  one 
another  :  ^How  7?iuch  soever  the  reformation  of  this  degene- 
rate age  is  almost  utterly  to  be  despaired  of,  we  may  yet 
have  a  more  comfortable  prospect  of  future  limes.'  The 
sentence  would  be  more  correct  in  the  following  form : 
^Though  the  reformation  of  this  degenerate  age  is  nearly  to 
be  dfspaired  of,'<fec. 

*0h  !  shut  not  up  my  so:il  with  the  sinners,  nor  ray  life 
with  the  blood-lhirsiy  ;  in  whose  hands  is  wickedness,  and 
their  richt  hand  is  full  of  giPs.'  As  the  |)ass  ige,  introduc- 
ed by  the  copulative  conjunction  andy  Wc»s  not  intended  as 
a  co'itinuation  of  the  principal  and  independent  part  of  the 
sj^ntence,  but  of  the  dependent  part,  the  relative  wliose 
should  have  l^een  usrd  instead  of  the  possessive /^c/r;  viz. 
'and  whose  right  hand  is  full  of  gifts.' 

'Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have  entered 
into  the  heart  of  man,  the  things  which  God  hnth  prepared 
fortht  m  that  love  him.'  There  seems  to  be  an  impropriety 
in  (his  sentence,  in  which  the  same  noun  serves  in  a  double 
capacity,  performing  at  the  same  time  the  offi^'es  both  of  I  he 
nominative  and  objective  cases.  'Neither  hath  it  enteifd 
into  the  heart  of  man,  to  conceive  the  things,"  <fcc.  would 
have  been  regular. 

'We  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  compoun- 
ding, those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  into  all 
the  varieties  of  [licture  and  vision.'  It  is  very  proper  to 
Bay,  'altering  and  compounding  those  images  which  we 
have  once  received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and 
vision ;'  but  we  can  with  no  propriety  say,  'retaining  them 
into  all  the  varieties;'  and  yet,  according  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  words  are  ranged,  this  construction  is  unavoida- 
ble :  for  'retaining,  altering,  and  compounding,'  are  partici- 
ples, each  of  which  equally  refers  to,  and  governs  the  sub- 
sequent noun,  those  images  ;  and  that  noun  again  is  neces- 
sarily connected  with  the  following  preposition,  i/i<o.  'J'he 
construction  might  easily  have  been  rectitied,  by  disjoining 
the  participle  retaining  from  the  other  two  participles,  in 
this  way;  'We  have  the  power  of  retaining  those  images 


SYNTAX.  201 

which  we  have  once  received,  and  oi'  altering  and  com- 
pounding them  into  ail  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision;' 
or,  perhaps,  better  thus  :  'We  have  the  power  of  retaining, 
altering,  and  compounding  those  images  which  we  have 
once  received,  and  of  forming  them  into  all  the  varieties  of 
picture  and  vision.' 

INTERJECTION. 

For  the  syntax  of  the  Interjection,  see  Rule  v.  Note  11, 
page  142. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  PARSING. 

As  we  have  finished  the  explanation  of  the  ditferent  parts 
of  speech,  and  the  rules  for  forming  them  into  sentences,  it 
is  now  proper  to  give  some  examples  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  learners  should  be  exercised,  in  order  to  prove  their 
knowledge,  and  to  rendeMt  familiar  to  them.  This  is  call- 
ed parsing.  The  nature  of  the  subject,  as  well  as  the  adap- 
tation of  it  to  learners,  requires  that  it  should  be  divided  in- 
to two  parts;  viz.  parsing,  as  it  respects  etymology  alone, 
and  parsing,  as  it  respects  both  etymology  and  syntax.* 

Sect.  1.     Specimens  of  etymological  parsing, 

"Virtue  ennobles  us." 
Virtue  IS  a  common  substantive  of  the  third  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (Decline  the 
noun.)  Ennobles  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood, 
present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  {^Repeat  ike 
present  tense,  the  imperfect  tense,  and  the  perfect  parliciple.)^ 
Us  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  ptrsoa  piurai,  and  in 
the  olyective  case.     {Decline  the  pronoun,) 

"Goodness  will  be  rewarded." 
Goodness  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  i>erson, 
the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.     (Decli?i€ 
it.)     Will  be  rewarded  is  a  regular   verb,  in  the  passive 

*.See  the  'General  Directions  for  using  the  En2:lish  Exercises, ' 
prefixed  to  the  Eighth  and  every  subsequent  edition  of  that  b    )k. 

tThe  learner  should  occasionally  repeat  all  the  aiuods  and 
tenses  of  the  verb. 


202  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

voice,  the  in^licative  mood,  the  first  future  tense,  and  the 
thirl  person  sin<!;ular.  (Rcprat  tJie present  tense^  the  inipet' 
fc't  tense ^  and  the  perfect  participle.) 

"Strive  to  improve." 
Strive  is  an  irrc2:ular  verb  neuter,  in  the  imperative  mood, 
anti  of  the  second  person  sinsjular.    {Repeat  the  present  tense, 
<£'f .)      To  improve  is  a  re^wl  ir  verb  neuter,  and  in  the  iuiia- 
itive  mood.     {Repeat  the  present  tense,  &c.) 

'•Time  flies,  O  !  how  swiftly." 
Time  is  a  common  sur.stantive,  of  the  third  person,  the 
sinfcuhtr  numher,  in  the  nominative  case.  {Decline  the  ncun.) 
Flies  is  an  irrejruiar  verb  neuter,  the  iridica(ive  mood,  f>res- 
esil  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  (R  peat  the  pres- 
int  tense,  d^c.)  0/  is  an  interjection.  How  and  stviftit/  are 
adver-"'3. 

**^Gratitude  is  a  delightful  emotion." 

Gratitude  is  a  common  substantive  of  the  third  person, 
the  singular  num'.er,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  {Decline 
it.)  Is  i»  an  irreg:ular  verb  neuter,  inilicative  mood^  [)resent 
tense,  and  the  lliird  person  singular.  {Repeat  the  present 
tense,  lix.)  A  is  the  indt-finite  article.  Ddighiful  is  an  ad- 
jective in  the  positive  state.  {Rejj: at  the  (leverets  of  cowpar- 
ison,)  Emotion  is  a  common  sul.stantive  of  the  third  per- 
son, the  singular  nuniljer,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  {Dc- 
elinc  it.) 

*'They  who  forgive,  act  nobly." 
TA7/  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the  plu- 
ral number,  and  in  the  nomin  ilive  case.  {Dcline  it.)  Who 
is  a  relative  profioun,  an<l  the  nominative  c;jse.  {DicHne  it.) 
Forgive  Is  an  irre;L;ular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present 
tensi',  and  the  third  person  plural.  {Repeat  the  present  tense, 
tic)  Act  is  a  reo^ular  verb  active,  inilicative  mood,  present 
tense,  and  the  third  person  plural.  {RrpecU,  &'C.)  Nobly  is 
an  adverb  ut  quality.     {Repeat  the  degrees  of  comparison.) 

>*By  living  temperately,  our  health  is  promoted." 

Bi/  is  a  pre{)ositioH.  Living  is  the  present  participle  of 
^he  regular  neuter  verb  "to  live,"     {Repeat  the  participles.) 


SYNTAX.  203 

7^e?w/>era/e?t/ is  an  adverb  of  quality.  Ottr  Is  an  adjective 
pronoun  of  the  possessive  kind.  [Decline  it)  Health  h  a 
common  substantive  of  the  third  person,  the  singular  num- 
ber, and  in  the  nominative  ease.  {Decline  it.)  Is  promot- 
ed is  a  regular  verb  passive,  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
and  the  third  person  singular.     {Repeat,  &c,) 

**We  should  be  kind  to  them,  who  are  unkind  to  us.'* " 

We  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  plural 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  {Decline  it,)  Should 
be  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  in  the  potential  mood,  the 
imperfect  tense,  and  the  first  person  plural.  {Repeat  the 
present  tense,  d-c)  Kind  is  an  adjective,  in  the  positive 
stafe.  {Repeat  thf  d  rees  of  companson,)  To  is  a  prepo- 
sition. Them  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  thir<l  person, 
the  i>lural  number,  and  in  the  oljective  case.  {Decline  it.) 
Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  an<!  in  the  nominative  case. 
{Decline  it,)  Are  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indic^^tive 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  p*  rson  plural.  {Repeat^ 
S:c.)  Unkind  \s  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state.  (/  peat 
th^  degrees  of  comparison.)  To  is  a  preposition.  IJs  is  a 
personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  plural  number,  and 
in  the  objective  case.     {Decline  it.) 


Sect.  2.  Specimen  of  si/ntacficaJ  parsing, 
"Vice  produces  misery." 
Vice  is  a  common  sul  stantive,  of  the  third  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  cse.  l^roduc^s  is 
a  regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  the 
third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  'vir.e,' 
according  to  Rule  I.  which  SMys;  {here  repeat  the  rule,) 
Misery  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  thircJ  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  the  objective  c^jse,  governed  liy  the 
active  verb  'produces,*  accordin'  ,o  Rule  XI.  which  says, 
Sec. 

"Peace  and  joy  are  virtue's  crown," 

Peace  is  a  common  suhstHutive.    {R  pat  the  person,  ninn- 
hc^  and  case.)     And  is  a  copulative  cunjuaclion.     Jot/  is  a 


204  ENGLISH  GRAxMiMAR. 

common  substantive.  {Repeat  the  person^  numher  and  case.) 
Arc  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  and  tbe  third  person  plural,  agreeing  with  the  nomi- 
native case  'peace  and  joy,'  according  to  Rule  II.  which 
says  ;  {here  repeat  the  rule.)  Virtue'^s  is  a  common  substan- 
tive, of  tbe  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the 
possessive  case,  governed  by  the  substarftive  'crown,'  agree- 
aMy  to  Rule  X.  w  hich  Siiys,  <&:c.  Crown  is  a  common  sub- 
stantive, of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in 
the  nominative  case,  agreeably  to  the  fourth  note  of  Rule 
XL 

"Wisdom  or  folly  governs  us." 

Wisdom  is  a  common  substantive.^  {Repeat  the  person^ 
number  and  case.)  Or  is  a  disjunctive  conjunction.  Folly 
is  a  common  sulstantive.  {Repeat  the  person^  numher  and 
case.)  Governs  is  a  regular  verl)  active,  indicative  mood, 
present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with 
its  nominative  case  'wisdom,'  *or  folly,'  according  to  Rule 
III.  which  says.  See,  Vs  is  a  personal  pronoun  of  tbe  first 
j>erson,  plural  number,  and  in  tlie  objective  case,  governed 
by  the  active  verb  'govern?,'  i...,*>^  ;«hly  to  Rule  XL  which 
yays,  &c. 

"Every  heart  knows  its  sorrows." 

Evenj  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  distributive  kind, 
agreeing  with  its  substantive  'heart,'  according  to  Note  2. 
under  Rule  VI 1 1,  which  says,  Ac.  Heart  is  a  common 
suljstantive.  (^Repeal  the  person^  numher  and  case,)  Knows 
is  an  irregular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
third  })erson  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  case 
'heart,'  according  to  Rule  1.  which  says,  &:c.  Its  is  a  per- 
sonal pronoun,  of  tbe  third  person  singular,  and  of  the  neu- 
ter gender,  to  agree  with  its  substantive  'heart,'  according 
to  Rule  V.  which  says,  &c.  It  is  in  tbe  possessive  case, 
governed  by  the  noun  'sorrows,'  according  to  Rule  X. 
which  says,  <fec.  Sorrows  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the 
third  person,  the  plural  number,  and  tbe  objective  case, 
governed  by  the  active  verb  'knows,'  according  to  Rule 
XI.  which  says,  &c. 


SYNTAX.  205 

«Thc  man  is  happy  who  lives  wisely," 

The  is  the  definite  article.  Man  is  a  common  substan- 
tive. {Repeat  the  person^  number  and  case.)  Is  is  an  irreg- 
ular verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the 
third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  the  noniinative  cise 
'man,'  according  to  Rule  1.  which  s.iys,  &c.  Happi/  is  an 
adjective  in  the  positive  state.  Who  is  a  relative  pronoun, 
which  has  for  its  antecedent,  'man,'  with  which  it  agrees  in 
gender  and  number,  according  to  Rule  V.  which  suj  s,  &c. 
Lives  is  a  regular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative 
*who,'  according  to  Rule  VI.  which  says,  &c.  Wisely  is 
an  adverb  of  quality,  placed  after  the  verb,  according  to 
Rule  XV. 

"Who  preserves  us  ?" 

Who  is  a  relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind,  and 
in  the  nominative  case  singular.  The  word  to  which  it 
relates,  (its  subsequent)  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  containing 
the  answer  to  the  question  ;  agreeably  to  a  note  under  Rule 
VL  Preserves  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood, 
present  tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nomi- 
native 'who,'  according  to  Rule  VI.  which  says,  &c.  Us 
is  a  personal  pronoun.  {Repeat  the  person,  number^  case^ 
and  rule,) 

"Whose  house  is  that  ?  My  brother's  and  mine. 
Who  inhabit  it  ?  We." 

Whose  is  a  relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind, 
and  relates  to  the  fi^llowing  words,  brotherV  and  'mine,' 
agreeably  to  a  note  under  Rule  TI.  It  is  in  the  possissive 
case,  governed  by  'house,' according  to  Rule  X.  which  sjiys, 
&c.  ^Hou^e  is  a  common  substantive.  {Repeat  the  person^ 
number^  and  case.)  i^  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indica- 
tive mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  a- 
greeing  with  its  nominative  case  'house,'  according  to  R  ,Ie 
I-  which  says,  &c.  That  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  de- 
nionslrative  kind.  My  is  -^n  adjective  pronoun  of  \W  pos- 
sessive kind.  Brcth^fs  is  a  common  s!il)stantive^of  the 
tJiird  person,  the  siDguictj:  uumbtr,  aoU  ia  the  possessive 

S 


20G  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

case,  governed  by  'house'  understood,  according  to  Rule  X. 
and  a  note  under  Rule  VI.  And  is  a  copulative  conjunc- 
tion. Mine  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  according  to  a 
note  under  Rule  X.  and  another  under  Rule  VI.  Who  is 
a  relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind,  of  the  plural 
number,  in  the  nominative  case,  and  relates  to  'we'  follow- 
ing, according  to  a  note  under  Rule  VL  Inhabit  is  a  regu- 
lar verb  active.  {Repeat  the  mood,  tcnse^  person,  &x.)  It  is 
a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the  singular  num- 
ber, and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb 
'inhabit,'  according  to  Rule  XI.  which  says,  <&:c.  We  is  ^ 
personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  plural  number,  and 
the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  ^inhabit'  understood.  The 
words  'inhabit  it'  are  implied  after  'we,'  agreeably  to  a  note 
under  Rule  VI. 

"Remember  to  assist  the  distressed." 

Remember  is  a  regular  verb  active,  imperative  mood,  the 
second  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its  nominative  case 
*thou'  understood.  To  assist  is  a  regular  verb  active,  ia 
the  infinitive  mood,  governed  by  the  preceding  verb  're- 
member,' according  to  Rule  XII.  which  says,  &c.  The  is 
the  definite  article.  Distressed  is  an  adjective  put  substan- 
tively. 

"We  are  not  unemployed." 

Wc  is  a  personal  pronoun.  (Repeat  the  person,  number^ 
and  case.)  Arc  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter.  {Repeat  tJie 
mood,  tense,  person,  &c.)  Not  is  an  adverb  of  negation. 
IJncmploijed  is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state.  The  two 
negatives  not  and  un,  form  an  afi&rmative,  agreeably  to  Rule 
XVI.  which  says,  &c. 

"This  bounty  has  relieved  you  and  us ;  and  has  grat- 
ified jhe  donor." 

This  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  demonstrative  kind. 
Bounty  is  a  common  substantive.  {Repeal  the  person,  num- 
ber, and  case.)  Has  relieved  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indic- 
ative mood,  perfect  tense,  third  person  lingular,  agreeing 


SYNTAX.  201 

with  i(3  nominative  *bounty,'  according  to  Rule  I.  which 
says,  &:c.  You  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  second  person 
phjral,  and  in  the  objective  case.  {Repeat  the  government 
and  rule,)  And  is  ti  copulative  conjunction.  JJs  is  a  per- 
sona] pronoun,  in  the  objective  case.  You  and  us  are  put 
in  the  same  c  ise  according  to  Rule  XVIII.  which  says,  <fec. 
And  is  a  copuh\tivG  conjunction.  Has  gratified  is  a  regu- 
lar verb  active,  indicative  mood,  perfect  tense,  and  third 
person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  'bounty,'  un- 
derstood. 'Has  relieved,''  and  ^has  gratified,'^  are  in  the  same 
mood  and  tense,  according  to  Rule  XV  111,  which  says,  &c. 
The  is  the  definite  article.  Donor  is  a  common  substan- 
tive, of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  the  ob- 
jective case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  'has  gratitied,'  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XI.  which  says,  5cc. 

"He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  repent.*' 

He  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 
number,  masculine  gender,  and  in  the  nominative  case. 
Will  he  pardoned  is  a  regular  passive  verb,  indicative  mood, 
first  future  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing 
with  its  nominative  'he,'  according  to  Rule  I.  and  compos- 
ed of  the  auxiliaries  'will  be,'  and  the  perfect  participle 
*p'irdoned.'  Not  is  a  negative  adverb.  Unless  is  a  dis- 
junctive conjunction.  He  is  a  personal  pronoun.  {Repeat 
the  person,  number,  gender,  and  case.)  Repent  is  a  regular 
ver')  neuter,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present  tense,  the 
third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its  nominative  case 
*he,'  according  to  Rule  I.  which  says,  &c.  It  is  in  the  sub- 
junctive mood,  because  it  implies  a  future  sense,  and  de- 
notes uncertainty,  signified  by  the  conjunction  'unless,'  a- 
greeably  to  Rule  XIX.  and  the  notes. 

"Good  works  being  neglected,  devotion  is  false." 

Good  works  being  neglected,  being  independent  on  the  rest 
of  the  sentence,  is  the  case  absolute,  according  to  the  fifth 
note  of  Rule  I.  Devotion  is  a  common  substantive.  (Rc- 
peal  the  number,  person,  and  case,)  Is  is  an  irregular  verb 
neuter.  {Rvpeat  the  mood,  tense,  person,  &c,)  False  is  an 
adjective  in  the  positive  state,  and  belongs  to  its  substan- 


208  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

tive  'devotion*  understood,  agreeably  to  Rule  VIII.  which 
saj&,  Arc. 

"The  emperor,  Marcus  Aurelius,  was  a  wise  and 
virtuous  prince." 

The  is  the  definite  article.  Emperor  is  a  common  sub- 
stantive, of  the  third  person,  the  singular  numht*r,  and  in 
the  nominative  case.  Marcus  Aitrelius  is  a  proper  name  or 
su!;8tantive,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  put 
in  a[)f)osition  with  the  substantive  'emperor,'  agreeably  to 
the  first  note  of  Rule  X.  Was  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter, 
indicative  mood,  imperfect  tense,  and  the  third  person  sin- 
gular, agreeing  with  its  nominative  case  *emperor,'  accord- 
ing to  Rule  I.  A  is  the  indefinite  article.  Wise  is  an  ad- 
jective, and  belongs  to  its  substantive  *prince.'  And  is  a 
copulative  conjunction;  Virtuous  is  an  adjective,  and  be- 
longs, drc.  Prince  is  a  common  substantive,  and  in  the 
nominative  case,  agreeably  to  the  fourth  note  of  Rule  XL 

**To  err  is  human." 

To  err  is  the  infinitive  mood,  and  the  nominative  case  to 
the  verb  Ms.'  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing 
with  its  nominative  case  'to  err,'  agreeably  to  Note  1.  un- 
der Rule  the  first.  Human  n  an  adjective,  and  belongs  tu 
its  substantive  'nature'  understood,  according  to  Rule  Yill. 
which  says,  &c. 

"To  countenance  persons  who  are  guilty  of  bad  ac- 
tions, is  but  one  remove  from  actually  committing  them.'* 

To  countenance  persons  who  are  guilty  of  had  actions,  is 
part  of  a  sentence,  which  is  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb 
'is.'  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter.  Sec.  agreeing  with  the 
aforementioned  part  of  a  sentence,  as  its  nominative  case, 
agreeably  to  note  1.  under  Rule  the  first.  But  is  a  disjunc- 
tive conjunction.  One  is  a  numeral  adjective,  agreeing 
with  its  substantive  'remove.'  Remove  is  a  common  sub- 
stantive, of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in 
the  Dominative  case,  agreeably  to  the  fourth  note  of  Rule 


SYNTAX.  209 

XI.  From  is  a  preposition.  Conmitting  is  the  present 
participle  of  the  regular  active  verb  'to  commit.'  Them  is 
a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the  plural  number^ 
and  in  tlie  objective  case,  governed  by  the  participle  *com- 
niitting,  agreeably  to  Rule  XIV.  which  says,  &c. 

"Let  me  proceed." 

This  sentence,  according  to  the  statement  of  grammari- 
ans in  general,  is  in  the  imperative  mood,  of  the  first  person, 
and  the  singular  number.  The  sentence  may,  however,  be 
analyzed  in  the  following  manner.  Let  is  an  irregular  verb 
active,  in  the  imperative  mood,  of  the  sec<lnd  person,  the 
plural  number,  and  agrees  with  its  nominative  case  *you' 
understood  :  as,  'do  you  let.'  Me  is  a  personal  pronoun, 
of  the  first  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  objective 
case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  'let,'  agreeably  to  Rule 
Xi.  which  says,  &c. 

^'Living  expensively  and  luxuriously  destroys  health." 
"By  living  frugally  and  temperately, health  is  preserved." 

Living  expensively  and  luxuriously^  is  the  nominative  case 
to  the  verb  'destroys,'  agreeably  to  note  1.  under  Rule  L 
Living  frugally  and  temper  cdely^  is  a  substantive  phrase  la 
the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition  'by,'  accor- 
ding to  note  2.  under  Rule  XIV. 

The  preceding  specimens  of  parsing,  if  carefully  studied 
by  the  learner,  seem  to  be  sufficiently  explicit,  to  enable 
him  to  comprehend  the  nature  of  this  employment ;  and 
sHfficiently  diversified,  to  qualify  him,  in  other  exercises,  to 
point  out  and  apply  the  lemainiog  rules,  both  principal  aud 
subordloate. 

S2 


PART    IV. 

PROSODY. 
Prosody  consists  of  two  parts :  the  former 
teaches  the  true  pronunciation  of  words,  cotn- 
prising  acccnt,  quantity,  emphasis,  pause, 
and  tone;  and  lue  latter,  the  Jaws  of  versifi- 
cation. 

CHAFER  r. 

OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


Sect.  1.     Of  Accent. 

Accent  is  the  layinof  of  a  peculiar  stress  of 
the  voire,  on  a  certain  letter  or  syllable  in  a 
word,  that  it  may  be  belter  heard  than  the 
rest,  or  distinsjuished  from  them  :  as,  in  the 
word  presume^  the  stress  of  the  voice  must  be 
on  the  letter  u,  and  second  syllable  sumcy 
which  take  the  accent. 

As  words  may  be  formed  of  a  different  number  of  S3ila- 
bles,  from  one  to  eigbt  or  nine,  it  was  necessary  to  have 
gome  f)eculiar  mark  to  distinguish  words  from  mere  sylla- 
bles; otherwise  speech  would  be  only  a  <iontinued  succes- 
sion of  syllables,  without  conveying  ideas  :  for,  as  words  are 
the  murks  of  ideas,  any  confusion  in  the  marks  must  cause 
the  same  in  the  ideas  for  which  they  stand.  It  was  there- 
fore necessary,  that  the  mind  should  at  once  perceive  what 
number  of  syllables  belongs  to  each  word,  in  utterance. 
This  might  be  done  by  a  perceptible  pause,  at  the  end  of 
each  word  in  speaking,  as  we  form  a  certain  distance  be- 
tween them  in  writing  and  printing.     But  this  would  make 


Accent.)  PROSODY,  211 

discourse  extremely  tedious ;  and  though  it  might  render 
words  distinct,  would  mnke  the  meaning  of  sentences  con- 
fused. Syllables  might  also  Ix^  siiffiriently  distinguistied 
by  a  certain  elevation  or  depression  of  voice  upon  one  syl- 
lable of  each  word,  which  was  the  practice  of  some  nations. 
But  the  English  tongue  has,  for  this  purpose,  adopted  a 
mark  of  the  easiest  and  simph  st  kind,  which  is  called  ac- 
cent, and  which  effectually  answers  the  end. 

Every  w^ord  in  our  language,  of  more  than  one  syllablCj 
has  one  of  them  distinguished  from  the  rest  in  this  manner; 
and  some  writers  assert,  that  every  monosyllable  of  two  or 
more  letters,  has  one  of  its  letters  thus  distinguished. 

Accent  is  either  principal  or  secondary.  The  principal 
accent  is  that  which  necessarily  distinguishes  one  syllable 
in  a  word  from  the  rest.  The  secondary  accent  is  that 
stress  which  we  may  occasionally  place  upon  another  syl- 
lable, besides  that  which  has  the  principal  accent;  in  order 
to  pronounce  every  part  of  the  word  more  distinctly,  forci- 
bly, and  harmoniously  :  thus,  'Complaisant,  caravan,'  and 
*violin,'  have  frequently  an  accent  on  the  tirst  as  well  as 
on  the  last  syllable,  though  a  somewhat  less  forcible  one. 
The  same  may  be  observed  of  'Repartee,  referee,  priva- 
teer, domineer,'  Szc,  But  it  must  be  observed,  that  though 
an  accent  is  allowed  on  the  first  syllable  of  these  words,  it 
is  by  no  means  necessary ;  they  may  all  be  pronounced 
with  one  accent,  and  that  on  the  last  syllable,  without  the 
least  deviation  from  propriety. 

As  emphasis  evidently  points  out  the  most  significant 
word  in  a  sentence;  so,  where  other  reasons  do  not  forbid, 
the  accent  always  dwells  with  greatest  force  on  that  part  of 
the  word  which,  from  its  importance,  the  hearer  has  always 
the  greatest  occasion  to  observe  :  and  this  is  necessarily  the 
root  or  body  of  the  word.  But  as  harmony  of  termination 
frequently  attracts  the  accent  from  the  root  to  the  branches 
of  words,  so  the  first  and  most  natural  law  of  accentuation 
seems  to  operate  less  in  fixing  the  stress  than  any  other. 
Our  own  Saxon  terminations,  indeed,  with  perfect  uniform- 
ity, leave  the  principal  part  of  the  word  in  quiet  possession 


212  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Sect.1. 

of  what  seems  its  lawful  property ;  but  Latin  and  Greek 
terminations,  of  which  our  language  is  full,  assume  a  right 
of  preserving  their  original  accent,  and  subject  almost  ev' 
ery  word  they  bestow  upon  us  to  their  own  classical  la\NS. 

Accent,  therefore,  seems  to  be  regulated  in  a  great  meas- 
ure by  etymology.  In  words  from  the  Saxon,  the  accent 
is  generally  on  the  root;  in  words  from  the  learned  langua- 
ges, it  is  generajly  on  the  termination  ;  and  if  lo  these  we 
add  the  different  accent  we  lay  on  some  words  to  distin- 
guish them  from  others,  we  seem  to  have  the  three  great 
principles  of  accentuation ;  namely,  the  radical,  the  tcrmi- 
national^  and  the  distinctive.  The  radical :  as,  'Love, 
loovely,  loveliness;'  the  terminational :  as,  'Harmony,  har- 
monious;' the  disjunctive:  as,  'Convert,  to  convert.' 

ACCENT  OS  DISSYLLABLES. 

Words  of  two  syllables,  have  necessarily  one  of  them 
accented,  and  but  one.  It  is  true,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis, 
we  sometimes  lay  an  equal  stress  upon  two  successive  syl- 
la)les;  as,  'Direct,  sometimes ;'  but  when  these  words  are 
pronounced  alone,  they  have  never  more  than  one  accent. 
The  word  'amen,'  is  the  only  word  which  is  pronounced 
with  two  accents  when  alone. 

Of  dissyllables,  formed  by  affixing  a  termination,  the  for- 
mer syllable  is  commonly  accented  :  as,  'Childish,  kingdom, 
actest,  acted,  toilsome,  lover,  scoffer,  fairer,  foremost,  zeal- 
ous, fulness,  meekly,  artist.' 

Dissyllables,  formed  by  prefixing  a  syllable  to  the  radi- 
cal word,  have  commonly  the  accent  on  the  latter:  as,  'To 
beseem,  to  bestow,  to  return.' 

Of  dissyllables,  which  are  at  once  nouns  and  verbs,  the 
verb  has  pommonly  the  accent  on  the  latter,  and  the  noun 
on  the  former  syllable  :  as,  'To  cement,  a  cement ;  to  con- 
tract, a  contract ;  to  presa2:e,  a  presage.' 

This  rule  has  many  exceptions.  Though  rerbs  seldom 
have  their  accent  on  the  former,  yet  nouns  often  have  it  on 
the  latter  syllable  :  as,  'Delight  perfume.'  Those  noung 
which,  in  the  common  order  of  Ictn^uage,  must  have  pre- 
ceded the  Terb9>  often  transmit  their  accent  to  the  verbe 


j4cceni.)  PROSODY.  213 

they  form,  and  inversely.  Thus,  the  noun  *water'  must 
have  preceded  the  verb  'to  water/  as  the  verb  *to  corrts- 
poud,'  must  have  preceded  the  noun 'correspondent :'  and 
*lo  pursue'  claims  priori. j  to  'pursuit.'  Bo  that  we  may 
conclude,  wherever  verhs  devitte  from  the  rule,  it  is  seldom 
by  chance,  and  generally  in  those  words  only  where  a  su- 
perior law  of  accent  takes  place. 

A! I  dissyllables  ending  in  ?/,  awr,  orv,  le,  ish,  cJc,  ter,  age^ 
en,et:  as, 'Cranny,  labour,  wiilow,  wallow;'  except  'allow, 
avow,  endow,  below,  bestow  ;'  'battle,  banish,  cambric,  bat- 
ter, courage,  fasten,  quiet;'  accent  the  former  syllable. 

Dissyllable  nouns  in  er,  as,  'Canker,  butter,'  have  the  ac- 
cent on  the  former  syllable. 

Dissyllable  verbs,  terminating  in  a  consonant  and  c  final, 
as,  ^Comprise,  escape;'  or  having  a  dipthong  in  the  last 
syllable,  as,  'Appease,  reveal ;'  or  ending  in  two  consooantS| 
as,  'Attend ;'  have  the  accents  on  the  latter  syllable. 

Dissyllable  nouns,  having  a  dipthong  in  the  latter  sylla- 
ble, have  commonly  their  accent  on  the  latter  syllable;  as, 
•Applause ;'  except  some  words  in  ain  ;  as,  'Villain,  curtain, 
mountain.' 

Dissyllables  that  have  two  vowels,  which  are  separated 
in  the  pronunciation,  have  always  tlie  accent  on  the  first 
syllable  :  as,  'Lion,  riot,  quiet,  liar,  ruin ;'  except  'create,* 


ACCENT   ON   TPaS SYLLABLES. 

Trissyllables  formed  by  adding  a  termination,  or  prefix- 
ing a  syllable,  retain  the  accent  of  the  radical  word  :  as, 
•Loveliness,  tenderness,  contemner,  waggoner,  pby'sical, 
bespatter,  commenting,  coramendiog,  assurance.' 

Trissyllables  ending  in  ous^  al^  ion :  as,  'A'rduous,  capi- 
tal, mention,'  accent  the  first. 

Trissyllables  <^nding  in  ce,  ent^  and  ate^  accent  the  first 
syllable :  as,  *C(  untenance,  continence,  armament,  inmii- 
nent,  elegant,  propagate;'  unless  they  are  derived  from 
words  having  the  accent  oo  the  last :  as,  'Connivance,  ac- 


214  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Sect.  1. 

quaintance ;'  and  unless  the  middle  syllable  has  a  vowel 
before  two  consonants  :  as,  'Promulgate.' 

Tfissyllables  ending  in  2/,  as,  'Entity,  specify,  liberty, 
victory,  subsidy,'  commonly  accent  the  first  syllable. 

Trissyllables  in  re  or  le^  accent  the  first  syllable:  as, 
'Legible,  theatre  ;'  except  *disfiple,'  and  some  words  which 
have  a  preposition  :  as,  'Example,  indenture.' 

Trissyllables  ending  in  udc^  commonly  accent  the  first 
3yllaI)Ie  :  as,  'Plenitude,  habitude,  rectitude.' 

Trissyllables  ending  in  a^or,  have  the  accent  on  the  mid- 
dle syllable  :  as,  'Spectator,  creator,'  &:c.  except  'orator, 
senator,  barrator,  legator.' 

Trissyllables  which  have  in  the  middle  syllable  a  dip- 
thong ;  as,  'Endeavor;'  or  a  vowel  before  two  consonants; 
as,  'Domestic  ;'  accent  the  middle  sylla!)le. 

Trissyllables  that  have  their  accent  on  the  last  syllable, 
are  commonly  French  :  as,  'Acquiesce,  repartee,  magazine;' 
or  they  are  words  formed  by  prefixing  one  or  two  i^yllables 
to  a  long  syllable  :  as,  'Immature,  overcharge.' 

ACCENT   ON    POLYSYIiliABLES. 

Polysyllables,  or  words  of  more  than  three  syllables,  gen- 
erally follow  the  accent  of  the  words  from  which  they  are 
derived :  as,  'arrogating,  continency,  incontinently,  com- 
mendable, communicab?ene8s.' 

Words  ending  in  aior^  have  the  accent  generally  on  the 
penultimate,  or  last  syllable  but  one  :  as,  'Emendator,  glad- 
iator, equivocator,  prevaricator.' 

Words  ending  in  /f,  commonly  have  the  accent  on  the 
first  syllable:  as,  'amicable,  despicable  :'  unless  the  second 
syllable  has  a  vowel  before  two  consonants :  as,  'Combus- 
tible, condemnable.' 

Words  ending  in  ion^  ous,  and  iy,  have  their  accent  on 
the  antepenultimate,  or  last  syllable  but  two :  as,  'Salva- 
tion, victorious,  activity.' 

Words  which  end  in  la,  io,  and  caZ,  have  the  accent  on 
the  antepenult:  as,  'Cyclopaedia,  punctilio,  despotical.' 

The  rules  respecting  accent  are  not  advanced  as  com- 
plete or  infallible,  but  proposed  as  useful.  Almost  every 
rule  of  every  language  hag  its  exceptions;  and,  in  English 


Sect.  2.)  PROSODY.  215 

as  in  other  tongues,  much  must  be  learned  by  example  and 
authority. 

It  niiay  be  further  observed,  that  though  the  syllable  on 
which  the  principal  accent  is  placed,  is  fixed  and  certain, 
yet  we  may,  and  do,  frequently,,  make  the  secondary  princi- 
pal, and  the  principal  secondary  :  thus,  'Caravan,  complai- 
sant, violin,  repartee,  referee,  privateer,  domineer,'  may  all 
have  the  greater  stress  on  the  first,  and  the  less  on  the  last 
syllable,  without  any  violent  offence  to  the  ear  :  nay,  it 
may  be  asserted,  that  the  principal  accent  on  the  first  sylla- 
ble of  these  words,  and  none  at  all  on  the  last,  though  cer- 
tainly improper,  has  nothing  in  it  grating  or  discordant ;  but 
placing  an  accent  on  the  second  syllable  of  these  words 
would  entirely  derange  them,  and  produce  a  great  harshness 
and  dissonance.  The  same  observations  may  be  applied  to 
^demonstration,  lamentation,  provocation,  navigator,  propa- 
gator, alligator,'  and  every  similar  word  in  the  language.      ^ 

Sect.  2.     Of  Quantity* 

The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  that  time  which 
is  occupied  in  pronouncing  it.  It  is  consid- 
ered as  LONG  or  SHORT. 

A  vowel  or  syllable  is  long,  when  the  ac- 
cent is  on  the  vowel ;  which  occasions  it  to 
be  slowly  joined  in  pronunciation  with  the  fol- 
lowing letters  :   as,  Tall,  bale,  mood,  house,  feature.' 

A  syllable  is  short,  when  the  accent  is  on 
the  consonant ;  which  occasions  the  vowel  to 
be  quickly  joined  to  the  succeeding  letter  :  as, 

*ant,  bonnet,  hunger.' 

A  long  syllable  generally  requires  double 
the  tinne  of  a  short  one  in  pronouncing  it :  thus, 
*Mate'  and  'Note'  should  be  pronounced  as  slowly  again  as 
'Mat'  and  'Not.' 

Unaccented  syllables  are  generally  short  :  as,  'admire, 
boldness,  sinner.'  But  to  this  rule  there  are  many  excep- 
tions :  as,  'also,  exile,  gangrene,  umpire,  foretaste,'  &c. 


216  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Sect.  2. 

When  the  accent  ;s  on  a  consonant,  the  syllaWe  is  often 
more  or  liss  short,  as  it  ends  with  a  sinde  consonant, 
or  with  mure  than  one  :  as,  *gatllj,  rubber;  persist,  match- 
less.' 

Whv'n  the  accent  ^s  on  a  semivowel,  the  time  of  the  syl- 
lahfe  may  be  orotr  :c(td,  l»y  dwellins:  upon  the  semivowel  : 
as,  'Cur',  can'  fulfil':'  but  when  the  accent  falls  on  a  mute, 
the  8ylla!>le  chnn*jt  he  lengthened  in  the  same  manner :  as, 
•Bubble,  cai>taiu,  to'tter.' 

The  quantity  of  vowels  has  in  some  measure  been  con- 
sidered under  the  firs!  part  of  grammar,  vhich  treals  of  the 
different  sounds  of  the  letters;  and  therefore  we  shall  dis- 
miss this  subject  with  a  few  general  rules  and  observations. 

Ist,  All  vowels  under  the  principal  accent,  before  the 
terminations  ifl,  io,  and  ion.  precexled  by  a  single  consonant, 
are  pronounced  long; ;  as,  'Resalia,  folio,  ailhesion,  explo- 
eion,  confusion  :'  except  the  vo>vel  i\  which  in  that  situation 
is  sl)ort  :  as,  'Militia,  punctilio,  decision,  contrition.'  The 
only  exceptions  to  this  ride  seem  to  be,  'Discretion,  battal- 
ion, gladiator,  national,  and  rational.' 

2d,  All  vowels  that  immedi/Mely  i»recedc  the  tenninationi 
iti/  *ind  eU/.  are  pronounced  long  *  as,  *])eity,  piety,  sponta- 
,neity.'  But  if  one  consonant  precedes  these  terminations^ 
every  preceding:  accented  vowel  is  short ;  except  u,  and  the 
a  in  'scarcity'  and  'rarity  ;'  ?j8,  'Polarity,  severity,  divinity, 
curiosity ; — impunity.'  Even  u  before  two  consonants  con- 
tracts itself;  as,  'Curvity,  taciturnity,' <SLc. 

3d,  Vowels  under  the  principal  accent,  before  the  termi- 
nations ic  and  ical,  preceded  by  a  sinele  consonant,  are  pro* 
nounced  sltort :  thus,  *S?itanic,  patlutic,  ellij>tic,  harmonic,* 
have  the  vow  el  short ;  while  'Tunic,  runic,  cubic'  have  the 
accent'  d  vowel  long  :  and  'Fanatical,  poetical,  levitical, 
canonical,'  have  the  vowel  short ;  but  'Cubical,  musical,  &c. 
have  the  u  long. 

4th.  The  vowel  in  the  antepenultimate  syllable  of  wordg, 
with  tne  foUovviBg  tecraiaatjoas,  id  always  prooouaced  abort. 


i^mphasis.)  PROSODY-  2l7 

loqui/  ;  as,  obloquy.  parous  j  as,  oviparous. 

strophe  ;  as,  apostrophe.  craci/  ;  as,  aristocracy. 

meter  ;  as,  barometer.  gony  ;  as,  cosmogony. 

gonal;  as,  diagonal.  phony;  as,  symphony. 

vorous  :  as,  carnivorous.  notny  ;  as,  astronomy. 

ferous  ;  as,  somniferous.  tomy  ;  as,  anatomy. 

fiuoiis  ;  as,  superfluous.  pathy  ;  as,  antipathy. 
jiuent ;  as,  mellifluent. 

As  no  utterance  which  is  void  of  proportion,  can  be  a- 
greeable  to  the  ear;  and  as  quantity,  or  proportion  of  time 
in  utterance,  greatly  depends  on  a  due  attention  to  the  ac- 
cent ;  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  every  person  who  would 
attain  a  just  and  pleasing  delivery,  to  be  master  of  that  point. 

Sect.  3.     Of  Emphasis. 

By  emphasis  is  meant  a  stronger  and  fuller 
sound  of  voice,  by  which  we  distinguish  some 
word  or  words  on  which  we  design  to  lay  par- 
ticular stress,  and  to  show  how  they  affect  the 
rest  of  the  sentence.  Sometimes  the  emphatic 
words  must  be  distinguishsd  by  a  particular 
lone  of  voice,  as  well  as  by  a  greater  stress. 

On  the  right  management  of  the  emphasis  depends  the 
life  of  pronunciation.  If  no  emphasis  be  placed  on.  any 
words,  not  only  will  discourse  be  rendered  heavy  and  life- 
less, bat  the  meaning  often  left  ambiguous.  If  the  empha- 
sis be  placed  wrong,  we  shall  pervert  and  confound  the 
meaning  wholly.  To  give  a  common  instance :  such  a 
simple  question  as  this,  'Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  V  is 
capable  of  no  fewer  than  four  different  acceptations,  accord- 
ing as  the  emphasis  is  differently  placed  on  the  words.  If 
it  be  pronounced  thus  :  'Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  T  the 
answer  may  naturally  be,  'No,  we  send  a  servant  in  our 
stead.'  If  thus :  'Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ?'  answer, 
'No,  we  intend  to  walk.'  'Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  V 
'No,  we  ride  into  the  country.'  'Do  you  ride  to  town  tO" 
day  T  'No,  but  we  shall  to-morrow.'  In  like  manner,  in 
T 


i.^18  EXGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Sect.  3, 

solemn  discourse,  the  wliole  force  and  beauty  of  an  expres- 
sion often  depend  on  the  emphatic  Avord ;  and  we  may  pre- 
sent to  the  hearers  quite  different  views  of  the  same  senti- 
ment, by  placing;  the  emphasis  differently.  In  the  follow- 
ing words  of  our  Saviour,  observe  in  \Nhat  different  lights 
the  thought  is  placed  according  r.s  the  words  are  pronounc- 
ed. Judas,  betrayest  thou  the  son  of  man  with  a  kiss  ?' — 
^Bclraijcst  thou,'  makes  the  reproach  turn  on  the  infamy  of 
treachery.  *15etrayest  thov^  makes  it  rest  upon  Judas's 
connexion  with  his  master.  'Betrayest  thou  the  son  of 
man^  rests  it  upon  our  Saviour's  ])ersonal  character  and  em- 
inence. 'Betrayest  thou  the  son  of  man  with  a  kiss  T  turns 
it  upon  his  prostituting  the  signal  of  peace  and  friendship  to 
the  purpose  of  destruction. 

The  emphasis  often  lies  on  the  word  that  asks  a  question: 
as,  'Who  said  so?'  'Whin  will  he  come?'  'What  shall  I 
do  ?'  'Whithrr  shall  1  go  V  'Why  dost  thou  wee.p  ?'  And 
when  two  words  are  set  in  contrast,  or  in  opposition  to  one 
another,  they  are  both  emphatic  :  as,  *He  is  the  tyrant^  not 
the  father^  of  his  people  ;'  *His  subjects /ear  him,  but  they 
do  not  love  him.' 

Some  sentences  are  so  full  and  comprehensive,  that  al- 
most every  word  is  emphatical  :  as,  'Ye  hills  and  dales,  ye 
rivers,  woods,  and  plains:'  or,  as  that  pathetic  expostula- 
tion in  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel,  'Why  will  ye  die  !'  In  the 
latter  short  sentence,  every  word  is  emphatieal  :  and  on 
whichever  word  we  lay  the  em[)lrasis,  whellier  on  the  first, 
second,  third,  or  fourth,  it  strikes  out  a  different  sense,  and 
opens  a  new  subject  of  expostulation. 

As  accent  dignifies  the  syllable  ©n  which  it  is  laitl,  and 
makes  it  more  distingiiished  by  the  e«r  than  the  rest;  so  em- 
phasis ennobles  the  word  to  which  it  belongs,  and  presents 
it  in  a  stronger  I'ght  to  the  understanding.  Were  there  no 
accents^  words  would  he  resolved  into  their  original  sylla- 
bles :  were  there  no  emphasis,  sentences  would  be  resolved 
into  their  original  words  ;  and,  in  this  case,  the  hearer  would 
be  under  the  j)ainful  necessjty,first,of  making  out  the  words, 
and  afterwards,  their  meaning. 

Emphasis  is  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  complex.  Simple^ 
r^hen  it  serves  to  point  out  onJy  the  plain  meaning  of  any 


Emphans.)  PROSODY.  219 

proposition  ;  complex,  when,  besides  the  meaning,  it  marks 
also  some  affection  or  emotion  of  the  mind  ,-  or  gives  a  mean- 
ing to  words,  which  they  would  not  have  in  their  usual  ac- 
ceptation. In  the  former  case,  emphasis  is  scarcely  more 
than  a  stronger  accent,  with  little  or  no  change  of  tone  ; 
when  it  is  complex,  besides  force,  there  is  always  superadd- 
ed a  manifest  change  of  tone. 

The  following  sentence  contains  an  example  of  simple 
emphasis  :  'And  Nathan  said  to  David,  Thou  art  the  man,' 
The  emphasis  on  thou,  serves  only  to  point  out  the  mean- 
ing of  the  speaker.  But  in  the  sentence  which  follows,  we 
perceive  an  emotion  of  the  speaker  superadded  to  the  sim- 
ple meaning  :  'Why  will  ye  die  f 

As  the  emphasis  often  falls  gn  words  in  different  parts  of 
the  same  sentence,  so  it  is  frequently  required  to  be  con- 
tinued, with  a  little  variation,  on  two,  and  sometimes  three 
words  together.  The  following  sentence  exemplities  both 
the  parts  of  this  position  :  'If  you  seek  to  make  one  rich^ 
study  not  to  increase  his  stores,  but  to  diminish  his  desires^ 
Emphasis  may  be  further  distinguished,  into  the  weaker  and 
the  stronger  emphasis.  In  the  sentence,  'Exercise  and 
temperance  strengthen  the  constitution  ;'  we  perceive  more 
force  on  the  word  strengthen^  than  on  any  other ;  though  it 
is  not  equal  to  the  stress  which  we  apply  to  the  word  indif- 
ferent^ in  the  following  sentence  :  'Exercise  and  temperance 
strengthen  even  an  indifferent  constitution.'  It  is  also  pro- 
per to  remark,  that  the  words  exercise^  temperance^  constilu- 
lion,  in  the  last  example  but  one,  are  pronounced  with 
greater  force,  than  the  articles  and  and  the  ;  and  yet  those 
words  cannot  properly  be  called  eraphatical :  for  the  stress 
that  is  laid  on  them,  is  no  more  than  sufficient  to  convey 
distinctly  the  meaning  of  each  word.  From  these  observa- 
tions it  appears,  that  the  smaller  parts  of  speech,  namelj^, 
the  articles,  conjunctions,  prepositions,  &c.  are,  in  general, 
obscurely  and  feebly  expressed ;  that  the  substantives,  verbs, 
and  more  significant  words,  are  firmly  and  distinctly  pro- 
nounced ;  and  that  the  emphatical  words,  those  which  mark 
the  meaning  of  a  phrase,  are  pronounced  with  peculiar  stress 
and  energy,  though  varied  according  to  the  degree  of  their 
im[Jortance. 


220  ENGLISH  GRAM3IAU.  (Sect.  3, 

Emphasis,  besides  its  others  offices,  is  the  great  regulator 
of  quantity.  Though  the  quantity  of  our  syllables  is  fixed, 
in  words  separately  pronounced,  yet  it  is  mutable,  when 
Ibese  words  are  ranged  in  sentences  :  the  long  being  chan- 
ged into  short,  the  short  into  long,  according  to  the  import- 
ance of  the  words  with  regard  to  meaning :  and  as  it  is  by 
emphasis  only,  that  the  meaning  can  be  pointed  out,  em- 
phasis must  be  the  regulator  of  the  quantity.  A  few  exam- 
ples will  make  this  point  very  evident. 

Pleas'd  thoii  shalt  hear— -and  learn  the  secret  power,  &c. 
Pleas'd  thou  shalt  hear — and  thou  alone  shalt  bear — 
Pleas'd  thou  shalt  hear — in  spite  of  them  siiali  hear — 
Pleaa'd  Ihdu  shalt  hear — though  not  behold  the  fair — 

In  the  first  of  these  instances,  the  words  pleased  and  hear^ 
()eing  equally  eraphatical,  are  both  long ;  whilst  the  two  in- 
termediate words,  th6u  and  shdlty  being  rapidly  passed  over, 
as  the  sense  demands,  are  reduced  to  a  short  quantity. 

In  the  second  instance,  the  word  thou  by  being  the  most 
/liiportant,  obtains  the  chief,  or  rather  the  sole  emphasis ; 
>nd  thus,  it  is  not  only  restored  to  its  natural  long  quantity, 
but  obtains  from  emphasis  a  still  greater  degree  of  length, 
than  when  pronounced  in  its  separate  state.  This  greater 
degree  of  length,  is  compensated  by  the  diminution  of  quan- 
tity in  the  words  pleas'd  and  hcai\  which  are  sounded  short- 
er than  in  the  preceding  instance.  The  word  shalt  slill 
continues  short  Here  we  may  also  observe,  that  though 
thou  is  long  in  the  first  part  of  the  verse,  it  becomes  short 
when  repeated  in  the  second,  on  account  of  the  more  forci- 
ble emphasis  belonging  to  the  word  alone,  which  follows  it. 

In  the  third  instance,  the  word  shali  having  the  em[>ha- 
sis,  obtains  a  long  quantity.  And  though  it  is  imi)06sible 
to  prolong  the  sound  of  this  word,  as  it  ends  in  a  pure  mute, 
yet  in  this,  as  in  all  similar  instances,  the  additional  quan- 
tity is  to  be  made  out  by  a  rest  of  the  voice,  proportioned 
to  the  importance  of  the  word.  In  this  instance,  we  may 
also  observe,  that  the  word  shall,  repeated  in  the  second 
part  of  the  line,  is  reduced  again  to  a  short  quantity. 


Emphasis.)  PROSODY.  221 

In  the  fourth  instance,  the  word  hear  placed  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  word  behold,  in  tlie  latter  part  of  the  line,  ob- 
tains from  the  sense  the  chief  emphasis,  and  a  proportionate 
length.  The  words  thou  and  shall,  are  again  reduced  to 
short  quantities;  and  the  word  pleas'd  lends  some  of  the 
lime  which  it  possessed,  to  the  more  important  word  hear. 

From  these  instances,  it  is  evident  that  the  quantity  of 
our  syllables  is  not  fixed  ;  but  governed  by  emphasis.  To 
observe  a  due  measurement  of  time,  on  all  occasions,  is 
tlouhtless  very  diffieult ;  but  by  instruction,  attention,  and 
practice,  the  difiicuity  may  be  overcome. 

Emphasis  changes,  not  only  the  quantity  of  words  and 
syllables,  but  also,  in  particular  cases,  the  seat  of  the  ac- 
cent. This  is  demonstrable  from  the  following  examples. 
'Be  shall  increase,  but  I  shall  ^/ecrease.'  'There  is  a  differ- 
ence between  giving  and  /orgiving.'  'In  this  species  of 
composition, /?la?/sibility  is  much  more  essential  than  jyrooa- 
bility.'  In  these  examples,  the  emphasis  requires  the  lie- 
cent  to  be  placed  on  syllables,  to  which  it  does  not  com- 
monly belong. 

In  order  to  acquire  the  proper  management  of  the  empha- 
sis, the  great  rule,  and  indeed  the  only  rule  possible  to  be 
given,  is,  that  the  speaker  or  reader  study  to  attain  a  just 
conception  of  the  force  and  spirit  of  the  sentiments  which 
he  is  to  pronounce.  For  to  lay  the  empliasis  with  exact 
propriety,  is  a  constant  exercise  of  good  sense  and  attention. 
It  is  far  from  being  an  inconsiderable  attainment,  it  is 
one  of  the  greatest  trials  of  a  true  and  just  taste;  and  must 
arise  from  feeling  delicately  ourselves,  and  from  judging  ac- 
curately, o^  wiiat  is  tittest  to  strike  the  feelings  oi-  others. 

There  is  one  error,  against  which  it  is  particularly  prop- 
er to  caution  the  learner;  namely,  that  of  multiplying  em- 
phatical  words  too  much.  It  is  only  by  a  prudent  reserve 
in  the  use  of  them,  that  we  can  give  them  any  weight.  If 
they  recur  too  often ;  if  a  speaker  or  reader  attemps  to  ren- 
der every  thing  which  he  expresses  of  high  importance,  by 
a  multitude  of  strong  emphases,  we  soon  learn  to  pay  little 
regard  to  them.  To  crowd  every  sentence  with  eraphati- 
cal  words,  is  like  crowding  all  the  pages  of  a  book  with 
T  2 


222  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Seci:.  4 

Italic  characters,  which,  as  to  the  effect,  is  just  the  same  as 
to  use  no  such  distinctions  at  all. 

Sect.  4.      Of  Pauses. 

Pauses  or  rests,  in  speaking  and  reading,  are 
a  total  cessation  of  the  voice,  diiring  a  per- 
ceptible, and,  in  many  cases,  a  measurable 
space  of  time. 

Pauses  are  equally  necessary  to  the  speaker,  and  the 
hearer.  To  the  speaker,  that  he  may  take  breath,  without 
which  he  cannot  proceed  tar  in  delivery  ;  and  that  he  may, 
by  these  temporary  rests,  relieve  the  organs  of  speech, 
which  otherwise  would  be  soon  tired  by  continued  action  : 
to  the  hearer,  that  the  ear  also  may  be  relieved  from  the  fa- 
tigue, w hich  it  would  otherwise  endure  from  a  continuity  of 
sound ;  and  tliat  the  understanding  may  have  sufficient 
time  to  mark  the  distinction  of  sentences,  and  their  several 
members. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  pauses  :  first,  em[)hatical  pauses  ; 
and  next,  such  as  mark  the  distinctions  of  the  sense.  An 
emphatical  pause  is  made,  after  something  has  been  said  of 
peculiar  moment,  and  on  which  we  desire  to  fix  the  hearer's 
attention.  Sometimes,  before  such  a  thing  is  said,  we  ush- 
er it  in  with  a  pause  of  this  nature.  Such  pauses  have  the 
same  effect  as  a  strong  emuhasis ;  and  are  subject  to  the 
same  rules  ;  especially  to  the  caution  just  now  given,  of  not 
re[)eating  them  too  frequently.  For  as  they  excite  uncom- 
mon attention,  and  of  course  raise  expectation,  if  the  impor- 
tance of  the  matter  is  not  fully  answerable  to  such  expecta- 
tion, they  occasion  disappointment  and  disgust. 

But  the  most  frequent  and  the  principal  use  of  pauses, 
is,  to  mark  the  divisions  of  the  sense,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  allow  the  speaker  to  draw  his  breath  ;  and  the 
proper  and  delicate  adjustment  of  such  pauses,  is  one  of 
the  most  nice  and  difficult  articles  of  delivery.  In  all 
n  dding,  and  public  speaking,  the  management  of  the 
breath  requires  a  good  deal  of  care,  so  as  not  to  oblige  us 
to  divide  words  from  cue  another,  which  have  so  intimate 


Pauses.)  PROSODY.  223 

a  connexion,  that  they  ought  to  be  pronounced  ^vith  the 
same  breath,  and  without  the  least  separation.  Many  sen- 
tences are  miserably  mangled,  and  the  force  of  the  empha- 
sis totally  lost,  by  the  division's  being  made  in  the  wrong 
place.  To  avoid  this,  every  one  while  he  is  speaking  or 
reading,  should  be  very  careful  to  provide  a  full  supply  of 
breath  for  what  he  is  to  utter.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  im- 
agine, that  the  breath  must  be  drawn  only  at  the  end  of  a 
period,  when  the  voice  is  allowed  to  fall.  It  may  easily  be 
gathered  at  the  intervals  of  the  period,  when  the  voice  is 
only  suspended  for  a  moment ;  and,  by  this  management, 
one  may  always  have  a  sufficient  stock  for  carrying  on  the 
longest  sentence,  without  improper  interruptions. 

Pauses  in  reading,  and  public  discourse,  must  be  formed 
upon  the  manner  in  which  we  utter  ourselves  in  ordinary, 
sensible  conversation  ;  and  not  upon  the  stiff  artificial  man- 
ner which  we  acquire,  from  reading  books  according  to  the 
common  punctuation.  It  will  by  no  means  be  sufficient  to 
attend  to  the  points  used  in  printing ;  for  these  are  far  from 
marking  all  the  pauses  which  ought  to  be  made  in  speaking. 
A  mechanical  attention  to  these  resting-places,  has  perhaps 
been  one  cause  of  monotony,  by  leading  the  reader  to  a 
similar  tone  at  every  stop,  and  a  uniform  cadence  at  every 
period.  The  primary  use  of  points  is,  to  assist  the  reader 
in  discerning  the  grammatical  construction  ;  and  it  is  only 
as  a  secondary  object,  that  they  regulate  liis  pronunciation. 

To  render  pauses  pleasing  and  expressive,  they  must  not 
only  be  made  in  the  right  place,  but  also  accompanied  with 
a  proper  tone  of  voice,  by  which  the  nature  of  these  pauses 
is  intimated,  much  more  than  by  the  length  of  them,  which 
can  seldom  be  exactly  measured.  Sometimes  it  is  only  a 
slight  and  simple  suspension  of  voice  that  is  proper;  some- 
times a  degree  of  cadence  in  the  voice  is  required ;  and 
sometimes  that  peculiar  tone  and  cadence  which  denote  the 
sentence  to  be  finished.  In  all  these  casts,  we  are  to  reg- 
ulate ourselves,  by  attending  to  the  manner  in  which  nature 
teaches  us  to  speak,  when  engaged  in  real  and  earnest  dis- 
course with  others. 

It  is  a  general  rule,  that  the  suspending  pause  should  be 
used  when  the  sense  is  incomplete  5  and  the  closing  pause^ 


224  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Sect.  . 

when  it  is  finishe<l.  But  there  are  phrases,  in  which,  though 
the  sense  is  not  completed,  the  voice  takes  the  closinfi:,  ra- 
ther than  the  suspending  pause;  and  others,  in  \vhich  tiie 
sentence  finishes  hy  the  pause  oC  suspension. 

The  closing  pause  must  not  be  confounded  wiih  that  fall 
of  the  voice,  or  cadence,  with  which  many  readers  uulfonn- 
ly  finish  a  sentence.  Nothing  is  more  destructive  of  pro- 
priety and  energy  than  this  habit.  The  tones  and  inflec- 
tions of  the  voice  at  the  close  of  a  sentence  ought  lo  be  di^ 
versified,  according  to  the  general  nature  of  the  discourse, 
and  the  particular  construction  and  meaning  of  the  sentence. 
In  plain  narrative,  and  especially  in  argumentation,  a  small 
attention  to  the  manner  in  which  we  relate  a  fact,  or  main- 
tain an  argument,  in  conversation,  will  show,  that  it  is  fre- 
quently more  proper  to  raise  the  voice,  than  to  let  it  fall,  at 
the  em\  of  a  sentence.  Some  sentences  are  so  construced, 
that  the  last  words  require  a  stronger  emphasis  than  any  of 
the  preceding;  while  others  .ndmit  of  being  closed  with  a 
soft  and  gentle  sound.  Where  there  is  nothing  in  the  sense 
which  requires  the  last  sound  to  be  elevated  or  emphaticai, 
an  easy  fall,  sufficient  to  show  that  the  sense  is  finished, 
will  be  pro[)er.  And  in  pathetic  pieces,  especially  those  of 
the  plaintive,  tender,  or  solemn  kind,  the  tone  of  the  pas- 
sion will  often  require  a  still  greater  cadence  of  the  voice. 
The  best  method  of  correcting  a  uniform  cadence,  is  fre- 
quently to  read  sekct  sentences^  in  which  the  style  is  point- 
ed, and  in  which  antitheses  are  frequently  introduced  ;  and 
argumentative  pieces,  or  such  as  abound  with  interrogatives, 
or  earnest  exclamation. 


Sect.  5.       Of  tones. 

Tones  are  different  both  from  emphasis  and 
pauses;  consisting  in  the  modulation  of  the 
voice,  the  notes  or  variations  of  sound,  which 
we  employ  in  the  expression  of  our  sentiments. 

Emphasis  affects  particular  words  and  phrases  with  a  de- 
gree of  tone  or  inflection  of  the  voice ;  but  tones,  peculiar- 


Tojm.)  PROSODY.  225 

ly  80  called,  alSect  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  sometimes 
even  the  whole  of  a  discourse. 

To  show  the  use  and  necessity  of  tones,  we  need  only  ob- 
serve, that  the  mind,  in  communicating  its  ideas,  is  in  a 
continual  state  of  activity,  emotion,  or  agitation,  from  the 
different  effects  which  those  ideas  produce  in  the  speaker. 
Now  the  end  of  such  communication  being,  not  merely  to 
lay  open  the  ideas,  but  also  tiie  different  feelings  which  they 
excite  in  him  who  utters  them,  there  must  be  other  sisjns 
than  words,  to  manifest  those  feelings ;  as  words  uttered  in 
a  monotonous  manner,  can  represent  only  a  similar  state  of 
mind,  perfectly  free  from  all  activity  or  emotion.  As  the 
communication  of  these  internal  feelings,  was  of  much  more 
consequence  in  our  social  intercourse,  than  the  mere  con- 
veyance of  ideas,  the  Author  of  our  being  did  not,  as  in  that 
conveyance,  leave  the  invention  of  the  language  of  emo- 
tion, to  man ;  but  impressed  it  himself  upon  our  nature  in 
the  same  manner  as  he  has  done  with  regard  to  the  rest  of 
the  animal  world ;  all  of  ^"i  hich  express  their  various  feel- 
ings, by  various  tones.  Ours  indeed,  from  the  superior  rank 
that  we  hold,  are  in  a  high  degree  more  comprehensive  ;  as 
there  is  not  an  act  of  the  mind,  an  exertion  of  the  fancy,  or 
an  emotion  of  the  heart,  which  has  not  its  peculiar  tone,  or 
note  of  the  voice,  by  which  it  is  to  be  expressed ;  and  which 
is  suited  exactly  to  the  degree  of  internal  feeling.  It  is 
chiefly  in  the  proper  use  of  these  tones,  that  the  life,  spirit, 
beauty,  and  harmony  of  delivery  consist. 

An  extract  from  the  beautiful  lamentation  of  David  over 
Saul  and  Jonathan,  may  serve  as  an  example  of  what  has 
been  said  on  this  subject,  'The  beauty  of  Israel  is  slain 
upon  thy  high  places.  How  are  the  mighty  fallen  !  Tell 
it  not  in  Gath ;  publish  it  not  in  the  streets  of  Askelon  : 
lest  the  daughters  of  the  Philistines  rejoice  ;  lest  the  daugh- 
ters of  the  uncircumcised  triumph.  Ye  mountains  of  Gil- 
boa,  let  there  be  no  dew,  nor  rain  upon  you,  nor  fields  of  of- 
ferings ;  for  there  the  shield  of  the  mighty  was  vilely  cast 
away;  ihe  shield  of  Saul,  as  though  he  had  not  been 
anointed  with  oil !'  The  first  of  these  divisions  expresses 
sorrow  and  lamentation ;  therefore  the  note  is  low.  The 
next  contains  a  spirited  command,  and  should  be  pronounc- 
ed much  higher.      The  other  sentence,  in  which  he  makes 


^Q  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Sect.  5. 

a  pathetic  address  to  the  mountains  where  his  friends  were 
slain,  must  be  expressed  in  a  note  quite  different  from  the 
two  former ;  not  so  low  as  the  first,  nor  so  hia:h  as  the  se- 
cond, in  a  manly,  firm,  and  yet  plaintive  tone.* 

This  correct  and  natural  language  of  the  emotions  is  not 
so  difficult  to  be  attained,  as  most  readers  seem  to  ima2;ine. 
If  we  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  authors  sentiments,  as  well 
as  into  tlie  meaning  of  his  words,  we  shall  not  fail  lo  deliver 
the  words  in  properly  varied  tones.  For  there  are  few  peo- 
I)le,  who  speak  English  without  a  provincial  tone,  that  ha\  o 
not  an  accurate  use  of  em[)hasis,  pauses,  and  tones,  when 
they  utter  their  sentimenis  in  earnest  discourse  :  and  the 
reason  (hat  they  have  not  Ihe  same  us«  of  them,  in  reading 
aloud  the  sentiments  of  others,  may  be  traced  to  the  very 
defective  and  erroneous  method  in  which  the  art  of  reading 
is  taught ;  whereby  all  the  various,  natural,  expressive  tones 
of  S[}eech,  are  sup[)res8ed,  and  a  few  artificial,  unmeaning, 
reading  notes,  are  substitutt-d  tor  them. 

But  when  we  recommend  to  readers,  an  attention  to  the 
tone  and  lariguage  of  emotions,  we  must  be  understood  to 
do  it  with  proper  limitation.  Moderation  is  necessary  in 
this  point,  as  it  is  in  other  things.  For  when  reading  be- 
comes strictly  imitative,  it  assumes  a  theatrical  manner,  and 
must  be  highly  improper,  as  well  as  give  offence  to  the 
hearers;  because  it  is  inconsistent  with  that  dflicacy  and 
modest}^,  which,  on  all  occasions,  are  indispensable. 

CHAPTER  II. 

OK  VERSIFICATION. 

A3  there  are  few  persons  who  do  not  sometimes  read  po- 
etical composition,  it  seems  necessary  to  give  the  student 
some  idea  of  that  part  of  grammar,  w  hich  explains  the  prin- 
ciples of  versification  ;  that,  in  reading  poetry,  he  may  be 
the  better  able  to  judge  of  its  correctness,  and  relish  its 
beauties.  When  this  lively  mode  of  exhibiting  nature  and 
sentiment,  is  perfectly  chaste,  it  is  often  found  to  be  highly 
ijnteresting  and  instructive. 

*  Berries. 


rersijication.)  PROSODY.  227 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a  cer- 
tain number  and  variety  of  syllables,  accord- 
ing to  certain  laws. 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  last 
sound  of  one  verse,  to  the  last  sound  or  sylla- 
ble of  another. 

Feet  and  pauses  are  the  constituent  parts  of 
verse.     We  shall  consider  these  separately. 

Of  poetical  feet 

A  certain  number  of  syllables,  connected,  form  a  foot. 
They  are  called  feet^  because  it  is  by  their  aid  that  the 
voice,  as  it  were,  steps  along  through  the  verse,  in  a  meas- 
ured pace;  and  it  is  necessary  that  the  syllables  which  mark 
this  regular  movement  of  the  voice,  shouW,  in  some  manner, 
be  distinguished  from  the  others.  This  distinction  was 
made  among  the  ancient  Romans,  by  dividing  their  sylla- 
bles into  long  and  short,  and  ascertaining  their  quantity,  by 
an  exact  proportion  of  time  in  sounding  them ;  the  long  be- 
in^  to  the  short,  as  two  to  one  ;  and  the  long  syllables,  be- 
ing thus  the  more  important,  marked  the  movement.  In 
English,  syllables  are  divided  into  accented  and  unaccent- 
ed ;  and  the  accented  syllables  being  as  strongly  distin- 
guised  from  the  unaccented,  by  the  peculiar  stress  of  the 
voice  upon  them,  are  equally  capable  of  marking  the  move- 
ment, and  pointing  out  the  regular  paces  of  the  voice,  as 
the  long  syllables  were  by  their  quantity,  among  the  Ro- 
mans. 

When  the  feet  are  formed  by  an  accent  on  vowels,  they 
are  exactly  of  the  same  nature  as  the  ancient  feet,  and  have 
the  same  just  quantity  in  their  syllables.  So  that,  in  this 
respefit,  we  have  all  that  the  ancients  had,  and  something 
which  they  had  not.  We  have  in  fact  duplicates  of  each 
foot,  yet  with  such  a  difference,  as  to  fit  them  for  different 
purposes,  to  be  applied  at  our  pleasure. 

Every  foot  has,  from  nature,  powers  peculiar  toitself :  and 
it  is  upon  the  knowledge  and  right  application  of  these  pow- 
ers that  the  pleasure  and  effect  of  numbers  chiefly  depend. 

An  feet  used  in  poetry  consist  either  of  two,  or  of  three 


228  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  {Versification. 

syllables ;  and  are  reducible  to  eigbt  kinds ;  four  of  two  syl- 
lables, and  four  of  three,  as  follows  : 

DISSYLLABLE.  TRISSYLLABLE. 

A  Trochee  -  ^  A  Dactyl  -O  ^ 

An  Iambus  ^  ^  An  Amphibrach  vJ  -O 

A  Spondee  —  An  Anapaest  ^^  ^  - 

A  Pyrrhic  ^  U  A  Tribrach  O  ;j   ;j 

A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last 
unaccented:  as,  'Hateful,  pettish.' 

An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the  last 
accented  :  as,  'Betray,  consist.' 

A  Spondee  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented  :  as, 
'The  pale  moon.' 

A  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented  : 
as,  'on  the  tall  tree.' 

A  Dactyl  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two  lat- 
ter unaccentf'd  :  as,  'Laborer,  possible.' 

An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  last  syllables  unaccent- 
ed, and  the  middle  one  accented  :  as,  'Delightlul,  domes- 
tic' 

An  Anapeest  has  the  two  first  syllables  unaccented,  and 
the  last  accented  :  -^s,  'Contravene,  acquiesce.' 

A  Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented  :  as,  'Nu- 
merable, conquerable.' 

Some  of  these  feet  may  be  denominated  principal  feet ; 
as  pieces  of  poetry  may  be  wholly,  or  chiefly  formed  of  any 
of  them.  Such  are  the  Iambus,  Trochee,  Dactyl,  and  An- 
apaest. The  others  may  be  termed  secondary  feet ;  because 
their  chief  use  is  to  diversify  the  numbers,  and  to  improve 
the  verse. 

We  shall  first  explain  the  nature  of  the  principal  feet. 

IAMBIC  verses  may  be  divided  into  several  species,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  feet  or  syllables  of  which  they  are 
composed. 

1.  The  shortest  form  of  the  English  Iambic  consists  of 
an  Iambus,  with  an  additional  short  syllable  :  as 
Disdaining, 
Complaining, 
Consenting, 
Repenting. 


ytrorfaauou.j  PROSODY.  1^29 

We  have  no  poem  of  this  measure,  but  it  may  be  met  with 
in  stanzHS.  The  Iambus,  with  this  addition,  coincides  with 
the  Amphibrach. 

2.  The  second  form  of  our  Iambic  is  also  too  short  to  be 
continued  through  any  great  number  of  lines.  It  consists 
of  two  Iambuses. 

What  place  is  here  ! 

What  scenes  appear j 

To  me  the  rose 

No  longer  glows. 
It  sometimes  takes,  or  may  take,  an  additional  short  sylla- 
ble :  as, 

upon  a  mounl&in 

Beside  a  fountain. 

3.  The  third  form  consists  of  three  Iambuses^ 

f  n  places  far  or  near, 
Or  famous  or  obscure^ 
Where  wholesome  is  the  air, 
Or  where  the  most  impure. 
it  sometimes  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable  :  as. 
Our  hearts  no  longer  languish. 

4.  The  fourth  form  is  made  up  offotir  Iambuses. 

And  may  at  last  my  weary  age, 
Find  out  the  peaceful  liermitage. 

5.  The  fifth  species  of  English  Iambic,  consists  ot  five 
Iambuses. 

How  lov'd,  how  valuVl  once,  avails  thee  not, 
To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot : 
A  heap  of  dust  alone  remains  of  th^e  ; 
'Tis  all  thou  art,  and  all  the  proud  shall  be. 

Be  wise  to-day,  'tis  madness  to  defer; 

Next  day  the  fatal  precedent  will  plead  ; 

Thus  on,  till  wisdotn  is  push'd  out  of  life. 
Tkis  is  called  the  Heroic  measure.  In  its  simplest  fona 
it  consists  of  five  Iambuses ,  but  by  the  admission  of  other 
feet,  as  Trochees,  Dactyls,  Anapjesis,  &c,  it  is  capable  of 
many  varieties.  Indeed,  most  of  the  English  common 
measures  may  be  varied  in  the  same  way,  as  well  as  by  the 
different  position  of  t^ir  pi\u«es. 
U 


230  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Versification. 

6.  The  sixth  form  of  our  Iambic  is  commonly  called  the 
^lexandrine  measure.     It  consists  of  six  Iambuses. 

For  thou  art  but  df  dust ;  be  humble  and  be  wise. 
The   Alexandrine    is   sometimes   introduced    into   heroic 
rh3'me;  and  when  used  sparingly,  and  with  judgment,  oc- 
casions an  agreeable  variety. 

The  seas  shall  waste,  the  skies  in  smoke  decay, 
Rocks  f^ll  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away  ; 
But  fix'd  his  word,  his  savino;  pow'r  remains  : 
Tiiy  realm  forever  lasts^  thy  own  Messiah  reigns, 

7.  The  seventh  and  last  form  of  our  Iambic  measure,  is 
made  up  of  seuen  lanibust-s. 

The  Lord  descended  from  a'  6ve,and  J  6aM  the    e  iv^nshigh. 

This  was  anciently  written  in  one  line;  but  it  is  now 
brokf-n  into  two  ;  the  first  containing  four  feet,  and  the  sec- 
ond three. 

When  all  thy  mercies,  o  nij  God! 

My  rising  soul  surveys, 
Transported  with  the  view,  Tm  lost 
In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 
In  all  thes^  mrnsuresj  the  accents  are  to  be  placed  on  even 
syllables:  and  every  line  considered  by  itself,  is,  in  gene- 
ral, more  mejodioijg,  hs  this  rule  is  more  strictly  observed- 

TROOn  AIC  verse  is  of  several  kinds. 

1.  The  shortest  Trochaic  verse  in  our  language,  consists 
of  one  Trochee  and  a  long;  syllable. 

Tumult  cease, 

f^ink  to  peace. 
This  measure  is  defective  in  dignity,  and  can  seldom  be 
used  on  serious  occasions. 

2.  The  second  English  form  of  the  Trochaic  consists  of 
two  feet^  and  is  likewise  so  brief,  that  it  is  rarely  used  for 
aiiy  serious  purpose. 

On  the  mountain 

By  h  fountain. 
It  sometimes  contains  two  feet  or  Trocheei,  with  an  addi- 
lioaal  long  syllable :  as, 


Fersijlcaiion.)  PROSODY.  l?3i 

In  ihii  days  of  old 
Fables  plainly  told. 

3.  The  third  species  consists  of^  three  Trochees  :  aa, 

When  our  hearts  are  mourning  : 
or  of  three  Trochees,  with  an  additional  long  syllable  :  aSy 
Restless  mortals  toil  for  nought ; 
Bliss  in  vain  from^  earth  is  sought  f 
Bliss,  a  native  of  the  sky, 
Never  wanders.     Mortals  try  ; 
There  you  cannot  seek  in  vain ; 
For  to  seek  her  is  to  gain. 

4.  The  fourth  Trochaic  species  consisls  of  four  Tro- 
chees: as, 

Round  us  roars  the  tempest  louder. 

This  form  may  take  an  additional  long  syllable,  as  follows  i 
Idle  after  dinner  in  his  chair, 
Sat  a  farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fair. 

But  this  measure  is  very  uncommoa. 

5.  The  fifth  Trochaic  species  is  likewise  uncommon.    It 
is  composed  o^  five  Trochees. 

All  that  walk  on  foot  Or  ride  In  chariots, 
AH  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

G.  The  sixth  form  of  the  English  Trochaic  consists  of  $ix 
Trochees  :  as, 

On  a  mountain  stretch'd  beneath  a  hoary  willow, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  view'd  the  rolling  billow. 
This  seems  to  be  the  longest  Trochaic  line  that  our  lan- 
guage admits. 

In  all  these  Trochaic  measures,  the  accent  is  to  be  plac- 
ed on  the  odd  syllables. 

The  DACTYLIC  measure  being  very  uncommon,  we 
shall  give  only  one  example  of  one  species  of  it : 
From  the  low  pleasures  of  this  fallen  nature, 
Rise  we  to  higher,  &:c. 

ANAPjESTIC  verses  are  divided  into  f  ^    eral  s,>f  •  i^s. 
L    The  shortest  anapsestic  verse  must  oe  a  sin^u  rtja- 
psest:  as, 


:232  ENCLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Frn^ificcHiuu^ 

But  In  vaiu 

They  complain. 
This  cieaswe  is,  however,  ambiguous  ;  for,  by  laying  the 
stress  of  the  roice  on  the  first  and  third  syllables,  we  might 
make  a  Trochaic.  And  therefore  the  first  and  simplest 
form  of  our  genuine  Anapgestic  verse,  rs  made  up  o^trvo  An- 
apaests :  as, 

But  his  courage  'g^o  fail, 

For  no  arts  could  avail. 
This  form  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable. 

Then  his  courage  'gau  fail  blm. 

For  DO  arts  conld  avail  him. 

2.  The  second  species  consists  of  three  Anappest^. 

0  ye  woods,  spread  yftur  branches  apace  ; 
To  your  deepest  recesses  I  fly  ; 

1  would  hide  with  the  beasts  of  the  chase ; 

I  would  vanish  from  every  eye. 
This  is  a  very  pleasing  measure,  and  much  us^dj  both  ia 
solemn  and  cheerful  subjects. 

3.  The  third  kind  of  the  English  Anapaestic,  consists  oT 
four  Anapeests. 

^^^y  T  govern  raj  passions  wKh  absdlate  sway;^ 
And  grov/  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  away. 

This  measure  will  admit  of  a  short  syllable  at  the  end  :  as, 

On  the  warn!  cheek  6f  youth,  smlleH  and  rosSs  ^re  blendlog. 

The  preceding  are  the  ditterent  kinds  of  the  principal 
feet,  in  their  more  simple  forms.  They  are  capable  of  nu- 
merous variations,  by  the  intermixture  of  those  feet  with 
each  other;  and  by  the  admission  of  the  secondary  feet- 

We  have  observed,  that  English  verse  is  composed  of  feet 
formed  by  accent ;  and  that  when  the  accent  falls  on  vow- 
els, the  feet  are  equivalent  to  those  formed  by  quantity. 
That  the  student  may  clearly  perceive  this  difference,  we 
shall  produce  a  specimen  of  each  kind. 

O'er  heaps  Of  ruins  stalkM  the  stately  hind. 

Here  we  see  the  accent  is  upon  the  vowel  in  each  eecond 
syllable.     In  the  following;  line,  we  sh;ill  find  Ihe  same  la»». 


Versification,)  PROSODY.  233 

bic  movement,  but  formed  by  accent  on  consonants,  except 
the  last  syllable. 

Then  rustling,  crackling,  crashing,  thunder  down. 
Here  the  time  of  the  short  accented  syllables,  is  compensat- 
ed by  a  short  pause,  at  the  end  of  each  word  to  which  they 
belong. 

We  now  proceed  to  shew  the  manner  in  whiph  poetry  is 
varied  and  improved,  by  the  admission  of  secondary  feet  in- 
to its  composition. 

Murmuring,  and  with  him  fied  the  shades  of  night. 
The  first  foot  here  is  a  Dactyl ;  the  rest  are  Iambics. 

O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp, 
This  line  contains  three  Amplilbrachs  mixed  with  lambicsu 

innumerable  before  th'  Almighty's  throne* 
Here,  in  the  second  foot,  we  find  a  Tribrach. 

See  the  bold  youth  strain  up  the  threatening  steep. 

In  this  line  the  first  foot  is  a  Trochee ;  the  second  a  genu- 
ine Spondee  by  quantity  ;  the  third  a  Spondee  by  accent. 

In  the  following  line,  the  first  foot  is  a  Pyrrhic,  the  sec- 
ond a  Spondee. 

That  on  weak  wings  from  far  pursues  your  flight. 

From  the  preceding  view  of  English  versification,  we 
may  see  what  a  copious  stock  of  materials  it  possesses.  For 
we  are  not  only  allowed  the  use  of  all  the  ancient  poetic 
feet,  in  our  heroic  measure,  but  we  have,  as  before  observ- 
ed, duplicates  of  each,  agreeing  in  movement,  though  dif- 
fering in  measure,"^  and  which  make  different  impressions^ 
on  the  ear ;  an  opulence  peculiar  to  our  language,  and  which 
may  be  the  source  of  a  boundless  variety. 

Of  Poetical  Pauses. 
There  are  two  sorts  of  pauses,  one  for  sense,  and  one  for 
melody,  perfectly  distinct  from  each  other.       The  former 
may  l>€  called  sentential,  the  latter  kamwnic,  pauses. 

*IVIovement  and  measure  are  thws  distinguished.  Movement 
expresses  the  progressive  order  of  sounds,  whether  from  strong  to 
weak,  frosn  long  to  short,  or  vice  versa.  Measure  signifies  th€ 
proportion  of  time,  both  in  sounds  and  pauses* 

V2 


jl  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  {rersi/ication . 

The  sentential  pauses  are  those  which  are  known  to  us, 
by  the  name  of  stops,  and  which  have  names  given  them; 
as  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  and  period. 

The  harmonic  pauses  may  be  subdivided  into  the  final 
pause,  and  the  ca^sural  pause.  These  sometimes  coincide 
with  the  sentential  pause,  and  sometimes  have  an  inde- 
pendent state,  that  is,  exist  where  there  is  no  stop  in  the 
sense. 

The  final  pause  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  line,  closes 
the  verse,  and  marks  the  measure  r  the  csesural  divides  it 
into  equal  or  unequal  parts. 

The  tiiial  pause  preserves  the  melody,  without  interfer- 
ing with  the  sense.  For  the  pause  itself  perfectly  marks 
the  bound  of  the  metre;  ami  being  made  only  by  a  suspen- 
sion of  the  voice,  not  by  any  change  of  note,  it  can  nevci* 
affect  the  sense.  This  is  not  the  only  advantage  gaine<l  to 
numbers,  by  this  final  pause  or  stop  of  sus;>ension.  It  also 
prevents  that  monotony,  that  sameness  of  notf  at  the  end 
of  lines,  which,  however  pleasing  to  a  rude,  is  disgusting  to 
a  delicate  ear.  For  as  this  final  pause  has  no  peculiar  notp 
of  its  own,  but  always  takes  that  wl)ich  belongs  to  the  pre- 
ceding word,  it  changes  continually  with  the  matter,  and  is 
as  various  as  the  sense. 

It  is  the  final  pause  which  jilone,  on  many  occasions, 
marks  the  ditlerence  between  prose  and  verse;  which  \\\\\ 
he  evident  from  the  following  arrangement  of  a  few  poeti- 
cal lines. 

*Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit  of  that  forbid- 
den tree,  whose  mortal  tasto  brought  death  into  the  work^ 
and  all  our  wo,  with  lo5s  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  m;in  re- 
store us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat,  sing  heavenly  muse  f 

A  stranger  to  the  poem  would  not  easily  discover  iha-t 
this  was  verse  ;  but  would  take  it  for  poetical  prose.  By 
properly  adjusting  the  final  pause,  we  shall  restore  the  pas- 
sage to  its  true  state  of  ver&e. 

Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  wo, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  m^n 
Kestore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
feing;  heavenly  muse  I 


^Versification.)  PROSODY".  235 

These  examples  shew  the  necessity  of  reading  bhink  verse 
in  such  a  manner,  as  to  make  every  line  sensible  to  the  ear: 
for,  what  is  the  use  of  melody,  or  for  what  end  has  the  poet 
composed  in  verse,  if,  in  reading  hi&  lines,  we  suppress  his 
iiumhers,  by  omitting  tl^e  final  pause;  and  degrade  them, 
by  our  pronunciation,  into  mere  prose  ? 

The  Caesura  is  commonly  on  the  foiirth,  fifth  03?  sixth 
syllable  of  heroic  verse. 

On  the  fourth  sylla ale.,  or  at  the  end  of  thA  second  foot  ^ 
as,  'Iw 

The  silver  eei"  in  shining  volumes  roli'd, 
The  yellow  carp   in  scales  bedropp^d  with  gold. 

On  the  fifth  syllable,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot :  as^ 
»      Round  broken  columns   clasping  ivy  twin'd, 
O'er  heaps  of  ruin"  stalk'd  the  stately  hind. 

On  the  sixth  syllable^  or  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot :  as. 
Oh  say  what  stranger  cause"  yet  unexplor'd, 
Could  make  a  genlie  belle"  reject  a  lord  ? 

A  Ihie  may  be  divided  into  three  portions,  by  two  ca^su^ 
ras  :  as, 

Outstretch'd  he  lay"  on  the  cokl  ground"  and  ofl" 
Look'd  up  to  lieav'n. 
There  is  another  mode  of  dividing  lines,  well  suited  to 
the  nature  of  the  couplet^  by  introducing  semi-pauses,  which 
divide  the  Tee  into  four  pauses.      This  semi-pause  may  be 
called  a  demi-extsura. 

The  following  lines  sdmit  of,  and  exemplify  \U 
Glows'  while  he  reads"  but  trembles'  as  he  writes. 
Reason'  i\\e  card"  but  passion'  is  the  gale. 
Rides  m  the  whirlwind"  and  directs'  the  storm. 

Of  Melody^  Harmony^  and  Expression* 

Having  shewn  the  general  nature  of  feet  and  pauses,  (he 
constituent  par(s  of  verse,  we  shall  now  point  out  more  par- 
ticularly, their  use  and  importance. 

Melody,  harmony,  and  expression,  are  the  three  great 
objects  of  poetic  numbers.  By  melody  is  meant,  a  pleas- 
ing efi'ect  produced  on  the  ear>  from  an  apt  arraugernent  of 


238  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.         {rersification, 

the  constituent  parts  of  verse,  according  to  the  laws  of 
measure  and  movement.  By  harmony,  an  effect  produced 
by  an  action  of  the  mind,  in  comparing  tlie  different  mem- 
bers of  a  verse  with  each  other,  and  perceiving  a  due  and 
beautiful  proportion  between  them.  By  expression,  such 
a  choice  and  arrangement  of  the  constituent  parts  of  verse, 
as  serve  to  enforce  and  illustrate  the  thought  or  the  senti- 
ment. 

We  shall  consider  each  of  these  three  objects  in  versifi- 
cation, both  \Tith  respect  to  the  feet  and  the  pauses. 

1st,  With  regard  to  melody. 

From  the  examples  which  we  have  given  of  verses  com- 
posed in  all  the  principal  feet,  it  is  evident  that  a  conside- 
rahle  portion  of  melody  is  found  in  each  of  them,  though  in 
different  degrees.  Verses  made  up  of  pure  lamhics  have 
an  excellent  melody. 

That  the  final  and  ceesural  pauses  contribute  to  melody, 
cannot  be  doubted  by  any  person  who  reviews  the  instan- 
ces, which  we  have  already  given  of  those  pauses.  To 
form  lines  of  the  (irst  melody,  the  caesura  must  be  at  the 
end  of  the  second,  or  of  the  third  foot,  or  in  the  middle  of 
the  third. 

2d,  With  respect  to  harmony. 

Verses  composed  of  Iambics  have  indeed  a  fine  harmo- 
ny; but  as  the  stress  of  the  voice,  in  repeating  such  verses, 
is  always  in  the  same  j)lacfs,  that  is,  on  every  second  syl- 
lable, such  an  uniformity  would  disgust  the  ear  in  a  long  suc- 
cession; and  therefore  such  changes  were  sought  for,  as 
might  introduce  the  pleasure  of  variety,  without  prejudice 
to  melody  ;  or  which  might  even  contribute  to  its  improve- 
ment. Of  this  nature  was  the  introduction  of  the  Trochee, 
to  form  the  first  foot  of  an  heroic  verse  :  as, 

Favours  to  none,  to  all  she  smiles  extends, 
OTt  she  rejects,  but  never  once  offends. 

Each  of  these  lines  begins  with  a  Trochee;  the  remaii;^ 
ing  feet  are  in  the  Iambic  movement.  In  the  foHowing 
Hoe  of  the  same  movement,  the  fourth  foot  is  a  Trochee. 

aU  these  our  notions  vain,  sees  aad  dendeSv 


^eraifuathn.)  PROSODY.  23f 

The  next  change  admitted  for  the  sake  of  variety,  with- 
out prejudice  to  melody,  is  the  intermixture  of  Pyrrhics  and 
Spondees;  in  which,  two  impressions  in  Ihe  one  foot  make 
up  for  the  want  of  one  in  the  other ;  and  two  long  syUabies 
compensate  two  short  ones,  so  as  to  make  the  sum  of  the 
quantity  of  the  two  feet,  equal  to  two  Iambics, 
on  the  green  bank  to  look  into  the  clear 
Smooth  lake  that  to  me  seem'd  another  sky, 
Stood  rul'd  stood  vast  lurinitude  conf  u/d. 

The  next  variety  admitted  is  that  of  the  Amphibracho 
Which  many  S  bard  had  chaunted  many  a  day. 
In  this  line,  we  find  that  two  of  the  feet  are  Amphibrachs, 
and  three,  Iambics. 

We  have  before  shewn  that  the  cafesura  improves  the 
melody  of  verse ;  and  we  shall  now  speak  of  its  other  more 
important  office,  that  of  being  the  chief  source  of  harmony 
ill  numbers. 

The  first  and  lowest  perception  of  harmony,  by  means  of 
the  caesura,  arises  from  comparing  two  members  of  the  same 
line  with  each  other,  divided  in  the  manner  to  be  seen  in 
the  instances  before  mentioned  ;  because  the  beauty  of  pro- 
portion in  the  members,  according  to  each  of  these  divis- 
ions, is  founded  in  nature;  being  as  one  to  two — two  to 
three — or  three  to  two. 

The  next  degi-ee  aiises  from  comparing  the  members  of 
a  couplet,  or  two  contiguous  lints  :  as, 

See  the  t^old  youth"  strain  up  the  threat'ning  steep, 
Rush  through  the  thickets"  down  the  valleys  sweep. 

Here  we  find  the  caesura  of  the  first  line  at  the  end  of  the 
second  foot ;  and  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot,  in  the  last 
line. 

Hang  o'er  their  coursers'  heads"  with  eager  speed, 
And  earth  rolls  back"  beneath  the  flying  steed. 

In  this  couplet,  the  caesura  is  at  the  end  of  the  third  fgot 
in  the  first  line  ;  and  of  the  second,  in  the  latter  line. 

The  next  perception  of  harmony  arises  from  comparing  a 
greater  number  of  lines,  and  observing  the  relative  jiropor- 
tion  of  the  couplets  to  each  other,  in  point  of  similarity  and 
diversity;  as, 


j3  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  {Versification. 

Thy  forests,  Windsor"  and  thy  green  retreats, 
At  once  the  monarchV  and  the  muse's  seats. 
Invite  ray  lays."      Be  present  sylvan  maids, 
Unlock  your  springs"  and  open  all  your  shades. 

Not  half  so  swiff  the  tremhlhig  doves  can  fly, 

When  the  tierce  eagle"  cleaves  the  liquid  sky  ; 

Not  half  so  swiftly"  the  tierce  eagle  moves, 

When  thro'  the  clouds"  he  drives  the  trembling  doves.  ^ 

In  this  way,  the  comparison  of  lines  variously  apportion- 
ed by  the  different  seats  of  the  three  ca?suras,  may  be  the 
source  of  a  great  variet}^  of  harmony,  consistent  with  the 
finest  melody.  This  is  still  increased  by  the  introduction 
of  two  Cffisuras,  and  much  more  by  that  of  semi-pauses. 
The  semi-pauses  double  ewfiry  w  here  the  terms  of  compari- 
son ;  give  a  more  distinct  view  of  the  whole  and  the  parts ; 
afiford  new  proportions  of  measurement,  and  an  ampler  scope 
for  diversity  and  equality,  those  sources  of  beauiy  in  harmo- 
ny. 

Warms'  in  the  sun"  refreshes'  in  the  breeze, 

Glows'  in  the  stars"  and  blossoms'  in  the  trees; 

Lives'  through  all  life"  extends'  through  all  extent, 

Spreads'  undivided"  operates'  unspent. 

3d.  The  last  object  in  versification  regards  expression. 

When  men  express  their  sentiments  by  words,  they  nat- 
urally fall  into  that  sort  of  movement  of  the  voice,  w  hich  is 
consonant  to  that  produced  by  the  emotion  in  the  mind;  and 
the  Dactylic  or  Anapa?stic,  the  Trochaic,  Iambic,  or  Sj/on- 
daic  prevails  even  in  common  discourse,  according  to  the 
ditferent  nature  of  the  sentiments  expressed.  To  imitate 
natifre,  therefore,  the  poet,  in  arranging  his  words  in  the  ar- 
tiliciHl  composition  of  verse,  must  take  care  to  make  the 
movement  correspond  to  the  stnt.ment,  by  the  proper  use 
of  the  several  kinds  of  feet  :  and  this  is  the  first  and  most 
general  source  of  expr«  ssion  in  numbers. 

That  a  ju<licious  management  of  the  feet  rind  pauses,  may 
be  peculiarly  exi>ressive  of  piriicular  operations  and  senti- 
ments, will  sutliciently  appear  to  the  learner,  by  a  few  se- 
lect examples  under  each  of  those  hends. 

In  tlie  following  instance,  the  vast  dimensions  of  Satan 


rersijicatioji)  PROSODY.  23& 

are  shown  by  an  uncommon  successcisslon  of  long  syllables, 
which  detain  us  to  survey  the  huge  arch  fiend,  in  his  fix^ed 
posture. 

So  stretch'd  out  huge  in  length  the  arch  fiend  lay. 
The  next  example  affords  instances  of  the  power  of  a 
Trochee  beginning  a  line,  when  succeeded  by  an  Iambus. 

■ ^and  sheer  within 

Liirhts  on  his  feet :  as  when  a  prowling  wolf 
Lv:ai!so'er  the  fence  with  ease  into  the  fold. 
The  Trochee  which  begins  the  line  shows  Satan  in  the 
aet  of  lighting :  the  Iambus  that  follows,  fixes  him — "Lights 
on  his  leet.' 

The  same  artifice,  in  the  beginning  of  the  next  line, 
makes  us  see  the  wolf — '  leap  o'€r  the  fence.' — But  as  the 
mere  act  of  leaping  over  the  fence,  is  not  the  only  circum- 
stance to  be  attended  to,  but  also  the  facility  with  which  it 
is  done,  this  is  strongly  marked,  not  only  with  the  smooth 
fojt  which  follows — *  with  etse' — itself  very  expressive, 
bui  likewise  by  a  Pyrrhic  preceding  the  last  foot — 'into  the 
fold' — which  indeed  carries  the  wolf — '  with  ease  into  the 
fold.' 

TJie  following  instances  show  the  effects  produced  by 
caesuras,  so  placed  as  to  divide  the  line  into  very  unequal 
portions :  such  as  that  after  the  first,  and  before  the  last 
semipede. 

p— — thus  with  the  year 

Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
Day"  or  the  sWeet  approach  of  even  or  morn. 
Here  the  caesura  after  the  first  semipede  Dew/,  stops  us 
-unexpectedly,  and  forcibly  impresses  the  imagination  with 
the  greatness  of  the  author's  loss,  the  loss  of  sight. 
No  sooner  had  th'  Almighty  ceas'd,  but  all 
The  multitude  of  angels,  with  a  shout 
Loud"  as  from  numbers  without  number"  sweet 
As  from  blest  voices  uttering  joy.— i 

There  is  something  very  striking  in  this  uncommon  cae- 
sura, which  suddenly  stops  the  reader,  to  reflect  on  the  im- 
portance of  a  particular  word. 

We  shall  close  the  subject  with  an  example  cDntainiog 


240  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (CoiniTiu. 

ihe  united  powers  of  many  of  the  principles  which  have 
been  explainecj. 

Dire  was  th  tossTna:  (Jeep^  the  groans"  Despair" 
Tended  the  sick"  busiest  from  couch  to  couch" 
A»d  over  them  triumj'hant  death"  his  dart" 
Shook"  I'Ul  delay \i  to  sJrike. 
Many  of  the  rules  and  observations  respecting  Prosody, 
are  taken  from 'Sleridan's  Art  of  Reading;'  to  which  book 
the  Compiler  refers  the  ingenious  student,  for  more  exten- 
sive iiifovmatioD  on  the  sul;ject. 


PU^^CTUATION* 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written 
composition  into  sentences,  or  parts  of  senten- 
ces, by  points  or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  the  different  pauses,  which  the  sense 
and  an  accurate  pronunciation  require. 

The  Comma  represents  the  shortest  pause; 
the  Semicolon,  a  pause  double  that  of  the 
comma;  the  Colon,  double  that  of  the  semico- 
lon ;  and  the  Period,  double  that  of  the  colon. 

The  precise  quantity  or  duration  of  e*^ch  pause,  cannot 
be  defined;  for  it  varies  with  the  time  of  the  whole.  The 
same  composition  may  be  rehersed  in  a  quicker  or  a  slower 
time;  but  the  proportion  betweeo  the  pauses  should  be  ever 
invariable. 

In  order  more  clearly  to  determine  (he  proper  applica- 
tion of  the  points,  we  inust  distinguish  between  an  irnper- 
feet  phrase^  a  sit)iple  ^efileietf.  «nd  a  compound  sentence. 

An  imperfect  phrase  jcontaifis  no  assertion,  or  does  not 

*As  punctuation  is  intended  to  aid  both  the  sense,  and  the  pronunciation  of  « 

.?ntpnce,  it  could  .not  h&ve  been  excliraJ^'cly  discussed  tipder  the  part  of  Syntax,,  or 

f  ro  -ofly.     The  nature  of  the  subject,  its  extent  and  imjwrtance,  and  the  grammatical 

l.r:ow  lodge  vfbich  it  presufposcs,  have  ujuuce^  us  ta  Biiii&  H  « -iiaUoct  and  sulwrC- 


Coiiuna.)  n;XCTUAT[0^.  241 

amount  to  a  proposition  or  sentence:  as, 'Therefore ;  ia 
haste;  stutUoiis  of  praise.' 

A  simple  sentence  has  but  o*je  suliject,  ami  one  finite 
verb^  expressed  or  im[)lied :  as  'Temperance  preserves 
heaiih.' 

A  compound  sentence  has  more  than  one  subject,  or  one 
finite  verb,  either  expressed  or  understood;  or  it  consists 
of  two  or  more  simple  sentences  connected  together:  as, 
*GGod  nature  mends  and  beautifies  all  objects;'  'Virtue  re- 
fines ihe  riffectioDS,  but  vice  debases  them.' 

In  a  sentence,  the  sul^Ject  and  the  verb,  or  either  of  them, 
may  be  accompanied  with  several  adjuncts:  as,  the  object, 
the  end,  the  circumstance  of  time,  place,  manner,  and  the 
like  :  and  the  subject  or  verb  may  be  either  immediately 
connected  with  them,  or  mediately  ;  that  is,  by  being  con- 
nected with  som^tliing  which  is  connected  with  &ome  other, 
and  so  on  :  as,  'The  mind  unoccupied  with  useful  knowl- 
edg'^,  becomes  a  magazine  of  tritles  and  follies.' 

Members  of  sentences  may  be  divided  into  simple  and 
compound  members.     See  page  128. 

CHAFER  I. 

Of  the  Comma. 

The  ComiTia  usually  separates  those  parts 
of  a  sentence,  which  though  very  closely  con- 
nected in  sense  and  construction,  require  a 
pause  between  thenn. 

Rule  1.  With  respect  to  a  simple  sentence,  the  several 
words  of  whkh  it  corsists  have  so  near  a  relation  to  each 
other,  that,  m  «jeneral,  no  points  are  requisite,  except  a  full 
stop  at  the  f  i^^  of  it :  as,  'The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  begin- 
ning of  wisd  >'!.'  'Every  part  of  matter  swarms  with  living 
creatures,' 

A  simpr?  atence,  however,  when  it  is  a  long  one,  and 
the  nominal  case  is  accompanied  with  inseparable  ad- 
jnncts,  may  ait  a  pauge  immediately  before  the  verb  : 
as,  'The  go;  aste  of  the  present  age,  has  not  allowed 
lis  to  negkct  the  cultivation  of  the  English  language:' 


1'42  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  {Cejitma, 

*To  be  totally  indifferent  to  praise  or  censure,  is  a  real  de- 
feet  in  character.' 

Rule  ii.  When  the  cofltiexion  of  the  different  parts  of  a 
simple  sentence  is  interrupted  by  an  imperfect  phrase,  a 
comma  is  usually  introduced  before  the  lieginninfr,  and  at 
the  end  of  this  phrase :  as,  'I  remember,  rvith  graiUude, 
bis  goodness  to  me  :'  'His  vsork  is,  in  many  respects^  very 
imperfect.  It  is,  therefore,  not  much  approved.'  But  \vhen 
these  interruptions  are  slight  an<!  unimportant,  the  comma 
is  better  omitted:  as,  'Flattery  is  eertainly  pernicious;' 
'There  is  surely  a  pleasure  in  beneiicence.' 

In  the  generality  of  compound  sentences,  there  is  fre- 
quent occasion  for  commas.  This  will  appear  from  the 
following  rules;  some  of  which  apply  to  simple,  as  well  as 
to  compound  sentences. 

Rule  hi.  When  two  or  more  nouns  occur  in  the  same 
oonstruction,  they  are  parted  by  a  comma  :  as,  'Reason,  vir- 
tue, ansN^er  one  great  aim  :'  'The  husband,  wife,  and  chil- 
dren, suffered  extremely  :'*  'They  took  away  their  furni- 
ture, clothes,  and  stock  in  trade:'  'He  is  alternately  sup- 
ported by  his  father,  his  unele,  and  his  elder  brother.' 

From  this  rule  there  is  mostly  an  exception,  with  regard 
to  two  nouns  closely  connected  t)y  a  conjunction  :  as,  'Vir- 
tue and  vice  form  a  strong  contrast  to  each  other:'  'Liber- 
tines call  religion  bigotry  or  superstition;'  'There  is  a 
natural  difference  between  merit  and  demerit,  virtue  and 
vice,  wisdom  ajid  folly.  But  if  the  parts  connected  are  not 
short,  a  comma  may  be  inserted  though  the  conjunction  is 
expressed :  as,  'Romances  may  be  said  to  be  miserable 
rhapsodies,  or  dangerous  incentives  to  evil;'  'Intempe- 
rance destroys  the  strength  of  our  bodies,  and  the  vigor  of 
£)ur  minds.' 

Rule  iv.  Two  or  more  adjectives  belonging  to  the  same 
substantive  are  likewise  separated  by  commas :  as,  'Plain^ 
honest  truth,  wants  no  artificial  covering ;'  'David  was  a 
Jbrave,  wise,  and  pious  man;'     «A  woman,  gentle,  sensible, 

*  As  a  considerable  pause  in  pronunciation,  is  necessary  between 

,the  last  noun  and  the  verb,  a  comma  should  be  inserted  to  denottf 

it.     But  as  no  pauee  is  alloi^ablc  between  the  last  adjective  an4 

iheuottu,  under  Rule  IV.  the  coraraa  is  there  properly  omitted. 

See  Waller's  Elements  of  Elocution, 


Comma.)  PUNCTUATION.  243 

well  educated,  and  religious ;'  *The  most  innocent  pleas- 
ures are  the  sweetest,  the  most  rational,  the  most  affecting, 
and  the  most  lasting.' 

Bat  two  adjectives  immediately  connected  by  a  conjunc- 
tion, are  not  separated  by  a  comma :  as,  'True  worth  is 
modest  and  retired  ;'  'Truth  is  fair  and  artless,  simple  and 
sincere,  uniform  and  consistent.'  'We  must  be  wise  or 
foolish  ;  there  is  no  medium.' 

Rule  v.  Two  or  more  verbs,  having  the  same  nomina- 
tive case,  and  immediately  following  one  another,  are  also 
separated  by  commas:  as,  'Virtue  supports  in  adversity, 
moderates  in  prosperity  ;'  'In  a  letter  we  may  advise,  ex- 
hort, comfort,  request,  and  discuss.' 

Two  verbs  immediately  connected  by  a  conjunction,  are 
an  exception  to  the  above  rule :  as,  'The  study  of  natural 
history  expands  and  elevates  the  mind  ;'  'Whether  we  cat 
CT  drink,  labor  or  sleep,  we  should  be  moderate.' 

Two  or  more  participles  are  subject  to  a  similar  rule  and 
exception:  as,  'A  man,  fearing,  serving,  and  loving  his 
Creator;'  'He  was  happy  in  being  loved,  esteemed,  and 
respected;'  '•By  being  admired  and  flattered,  we  are  oftea 
corrupted.' 

Rule  vi.  Two  or  more  adverbs  immediately  succeeding 
one  another,  must  be  separated  by  commas  :  as,  'We  are 
fearfully,  wonderfully  framed;'  'Success  generally  depends 
on  acting  nrudently,  steadily,  and  vigorously,  in  what  we 
undertake. 

But  when  two  adverbs  are  joined  by  a  conjunction,  thej 
are  not  parted  by  the  comma  :  as,  'Some  men  sin  deliberate- 
ly and  presumptuously;'  'There  is  no  middle  state;  we 
must  live  virtuously  or  viciously.' 

Rule  vil  When  participles  are  followed  by  something 
that  depends  on  them,  they  are  generally  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  by  a  comma  :  as,  'The  king,  approving 
the  plan,  put  it  in  execution ;'  'His  talents, /or/?i^(//or  grec^ 
enterprises,  could  not  fail  of  rendering  him  conspicuous ;' 
*All  mankiijd  compose  one  family,  assembled  under  the  eye 
of  one  common  Father.' 

Rule  viii.  When  a  conjunction  is  divided  by  a  phrase 
or  sentence  from  the  verb  to  which  it  belongs,  such  inter- 
vening phrage  has  usually  a  corama  at  each  extremity  :  as. 


244  ENGLISH  GRAM31AR.  {C  cmma. 

^They  set  out  early,  and,  before  the  close  of  the  day,  arriv- 
ed at  the  destined  place.' 

R^TLE  IX.  Expressions  in  a  direct  address,  are  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  b}^  commas  :  as,  *Mv  son,  give 
me  tby  heart;'  4  am  obliged  to  jou,  nuj frunils,  for  your 
many  favors.' 

R[JLE  X.  Tbe  case  absolute,  and  the  infinitive  mood  ab- 
>hi(e,  are  separated  by  commas  from  the  body  of  tlie  sen- 
tence :  as, 'His  father  dying:,  lie  succeeded  to  the  estate;' 
*At  length,  their  ministry  performed,  and  race  \vell  run, 
tiiey  left  the  world  in  peace ;'  'To  coafess  the  truth,  I  was 
much  in  fan  It.' 

Rllfj  XI.  Nouns  in  apposition,  that  is,  nouns  added  to 
other  nouns  in  the  same  case,  by  way  of  explication  or  il- 
lustration, w'nen  accompanied  wit!i  adjuncts,  are  set  off  by 
commas  :  as,  'Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was  emi- 
nent for  his  zeal  and  knowledge  ;'  'The  butterfly,  child  of 
the  summer,  tluttcrs  in  tl^c  9un.' 

Rut  if  such  nouns  are  sino;lc,  or  only  form  a  proper  name, 
they  are  not  divided  :  as,  'Paul  the  apostle;'  'The  empe- 
ror Antonius  wrote  an  excellent  book.' 

Rule  xii.  Simple  members  of  sentences  connected  by 
r cmparaJivcs,  are  fur  the  most  part  distinguished  by  a  com- 
ma :  as,  'y/i  the  hart  panteth  afrrr  tho  water  l>rooks,  ot?  duth 
my  soul  pant  after  thee  ;'  'Bitter  is  n  dinner  of  herbs  with 
love,  th:m  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred  with  it.' 

If  the  members  in  comparative  sentences  are  short,  the 
comma  is,  in  general,  l)elter  omitted  :  as,  'How  much  belter 
i*  it  to  get  wisdom  than  gold  !'  'Mankind  act  oftener  fronrt 
caprice  than  reason.' 

Rule  xiu.  When  words  are  placed  in  opposition  to  each 
other,  or  with  some  niaiked  variety,  they  recpiire  to  be  dis- 
tinguished by  a  comma  :  as, 

'Tho'deep,  yet  clear  ;  Iho'  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 
Strong,  without  rai^e  ;  without  o'erll owing,  full.' 

*Good  men,  in  this  frail,  imperfect  slate,  are  oKen  found, 
not  only  in  union  with,  but  in  op[)o.-ition  to,  the  views  and 
conduct  of  one  another.' 

Sometimes  when  the  word  with  which  the  last  preposi- 
tion ao-reeSj  n  single,  it  is  better  to  omit  the  comma  i>eforc» 


Comiva.)  PUNCTUATION.  245 

it :  as,  'Many  stales  were  in  alliance  rvilh,  and  under  the 
prolectioii  of  Rome.' 

The  same  rule  and  restriction  must  be  applied  when  two 
or  more  nouns  refer  to  the  same  preposition  :  as,  *He  was 
composed  both  under  the  threatening,  and  at  the  approach, 
of  a  cruel  and  lingering  death  ;'  *He  was  not  only  the  king, 
but  the  father  of  his  people.' 

Rule  xiv.  A  remarkable  expression,  or  a  short  observa' 
tion,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  quotation,  may  be  prop- 
erly marked  with  a  comma:  as,  4t  hurts  a  man's  pride  to 
say,  I  do  not  know ;'  'Plutarch  cal.i  lying,  the  vice  of 
slaves.' 

Rlle  XV.  Relative  pronouns  are  connective  words,  and 
generally  admit  a  comma  before  them  :  as,  'He  preaches 
sublimely, /v/io  lives  a  sober,  righteous,  and  pious  life;' 
'There  is  no  charm  in  the  female  sex,  which  can  supply  the 
place  of  virtue.' 

But  when  two  members,  or  phrases,  are  closely  connect- 
ed by  a  relative,  restraining  the  general  notion  of  the  ante- 
cedent to  a  particular  sense,  the  comma  should  be  omitted  : 
as,  'Self-denial  is  the  sacritice  which  virtue  must  make ;' 
'A  man  who  is  of  a  detracting  spirit,  will  misconstrue  the^ 
most  innocent  words  that  can  tte  put  together.'  In  the  lat- 
ter example,  the  assertion  is  not  of  'a  man  in  general,'  but 
of 'a  man  who  is  of  a  detracting  spirit;'  and  therefore  they 
should  not  be  separated. 

The  fifteenih  rule  applies  equally  to  cases  in  which  the 
relative  is  not  expressed,  but  understood  :  as,  'It  was  from 
piety,  warm  and  unaffected,  that  his  morals  derived  strength*' 
'This  sentiment,  habitual  and  strong,  influenced  his  whole 
conduct.'  In  both  of  these  examples,  the  relative  and  verb 
which  was,  are  understood. 

Rule  xvi.  A  simple  member  of  a  sentence,  contained 
within  another,  or  following  m.other,  must  be  distinguished 
by  the  comma  :  as,  'To  improve  time,  whilst  we  are  bless- 
ed with  health,  will  smooth  the  bed  of  sickness.'  'Very  of- 
ten, while  we  are  complaining  of  the  vanity,  and  the  evils 
of  human  life,  we  make  that  vanity,  and  we  increase  those 
evils.' 

If,  however,  the  members  succeeding  each  other,  are  ve- 
w  2 


a4f?  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  {Comma. 

py  closely  connected,  the  coniina  is  unnecessary  ;  as,  'Reve- 
lation toils  us  how  we  may  attain  happiness.' 

When  a  verh  in  the  infinilive  mood,  follows  its  govern- 
ing verb,  with  several  words  between  them,  those  words 
should  generally  have  a  comma  at  the  end  of  them  :  as,  'It 
Ui  becomes  good  and  wise  men,  to  oppose  and  degrade  one 
another.' 

Several  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood,  having  a  common 
dependence,  and  succeeding  one  another,  are  also  divided 
by  commas  :  as,  *To  relieve  the  indigent,  to  comfort  the 
afflicted,  to  protect  t!  -  Innocent,  to  reward  the  deserving^ 
are  humane  and  noble  employments.' 

Rule  xvii.  When  the  rerb  to  he  is  followed  by  a  verb 
in  the  infinitive  mood,  which,  by  transposition,  might  be 
made  the  nominative  case  to  it,  the  Ibrmer  is  generally  sep- 
arated frona  the  latter  verb,  by  a  comma  :  as,  'The  most  ob- 
vious remedy  is,  to  withdraw  from  all  associations  with  bad 
men.'  'The  first  and  most  obvious  remedy  against  the  in- 
fection, is,  to  witlulraw  from  all  associations  witli  bad  men.' 

Rule  xviil  When  the  adjuncts  or  circumstances  are  of 
importance,  and  often  when  the  natural  order  of  them  is  in- 
verted, they  may  be  set  otf  by  commas:  as,  'Virtue  must 
be  formed  and  su{)porte(l,  not  by  unfrequent  acts,  but  by 
daily  and  re[»eated  exertions. '  'Vices,  like  shadows  towards 
the  evening  ot  life,  grow  great  and  monslrous.'  'Our  inter- 
ests are  interwoven  by  threads  innumerable;'  'By  threads 
iiinumerable,  our  interests  are  interwoven.^ 

Ri  LE  XIX.  Where  a  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  may 
often  be  properly  introduced.  This  is  a  general  rule,  which, 
besides  comprising  some  of  the  preceding  rules,  will  apply 
to  many  cases  not  determined  by  any  of  them  :  as,  'From 
luw  arises  security;  from  security,  curiosity;  from  curiosi- 
ty, knowledge.*  In  this  example,  the  verb  'arises'  is  under- 
stood before  'curiosity'  and  M^ii.wledge ;'  at  which  words  a 
considerable  pause  is  necessary. 

Rule  xx.  The  words,  ncu),  so,  luncc,  again,  firsts  second- 
/y,  fonturlxf^  no7i\  latdif^,  once  more,  above  all,  on  the  cmi- 
irary,  in  the  next  place^  in  short,  and  all  other  words 
and  phrases  of  the  same  kind,  must  generally  be  separat- 
\'^}  from  the  context   by  a  comma  j    as^  'UcnaeffiJ^er   thy 


semicolon.)  PUNCTUATION.  I'd7 

best  and  first  friend ;  formerly,  the  supporter  of  thy  infancy, 
and  the  guide  of  thy  childhood;  ncw^  the  guardian  of  thy 
youth,  and  the  hope  of  thy  coming  years'  'He  feared 
want,  hence,  he  over-vahied  riches.'  'This  conduct  may 
heal  the  difference,  nay,  it  may  constantly  prevent  any  ia 
future.'  ^Finally,  I  shall  only  repeat  what  has  been  often 
justly  said.'  'If  the  spring  put  forth  no  blossoms,  in  sum- 
mer there  will  be  no  beautjs  and  in  autumn  no  fruit ;  so,  if 
youth  be  trifled  away  without  improvement,  riper  years  may- 
be contemptible,  and  old  age  miserable.' 

In  many  of  the  foregoing  rules  and  examples,  great  re- 
gard must  be  paid  to  the  length  of  the  clauses,  and  the  pro- 
portion which  they  bear  to  one  another.  An  attention  to 
the  sense  of  any  passage,  and  to  the  clear,  easy,  communi-^ 
cation  of  it,  will,  it  is  |)resumed,  with  the  aid  of  the  preced- 
ing rules,  enable  the  student  to  adjust  the  proper  pauses, 
and  the  places  for  inserting  the  commas. 

CHAPTER  IL 

Of  the  Semicolon, 

The  Semicolon  is  used  for  dividing  a  com- 
pound  sentence  into  two  or  more  parts,  not  so 
closely  connected  as  those  which  are  separat- 
ed by  a  comma,  nor  yet  so  little  dependent  on 
each  other,  as  those  which  are  distinguished 
by  a  colon. 

The  Semicolon  is  sometimes  used>  when  the  preceding 
member  of  the  sentence  does  not  of  itself  give  a  complete 
sense,  but  depends  on  the  following  clause :  and  sometimes 
when  the  sense  of  that  member  would  be  complete  without 
the  concluding  one  :  as  in  the  following  instances  j  'Ab  the 
desire  of  approbation,  when  it  works  according  to  reason, 
improves  the  amiable  part  of  our  species  in  every  thing  that 
is  laudable;  so  nothing  is  more  destructive  to  them  when 
it  is  governed  by  vanity  and  folly.' 

'Experience  teaches  us,  that  an  entire  retreat  from  world- 
ly affairs,  is  not  what  religion  requires  j  nor  does  it  eyea  en- 
joia  a  long  retreat  from  them*' 


2 IB  KXGLISH  GRAMMAR.  {Colon, 

*S{ra\Y3  swim  upon  the  surface^  but  pearls  lie  at  the  bot- 

tODl.* 

'Philosophers  assert,  that  nature  is  unlimited  in  her  ope- 
rations; that  she  has  inexliaustible  treasures  in  reserve;  that 
knowledge  \vill  always  be  progressive ;  and  that  all  future 
genera  lions  will  continue  to  make  discoveries,  of  which  we 
have  not  the  least  idea.' 

CHAPTER  III. 

Of  the  Colon. 

The  Colon  is  used  lo  divide  a  sentence  in(o 
two  or  more  parts,  less  connected  than  those 
wiiich  are  separated  by  a  semicolon ;  but  not 
so  independent  as  separate  distinct  sentences. 

The  Colon  may  be  properly  applied  in  the  three  follow- 
ing cases. 

1.  When  a  member  of  a  sentence  is  complete  in  ilstlf, 
but  followed  by  some  supplemental  remark,  or  further  illus- 
tration of  the  subject :  as,  *Nature  felt  her  inability  to  ex- 
tricate herself  from  the  consequences  of  guilt  :  the  gospel 
reveals  the  [)lan  of  Divine  interposition  and  aid.'  'Nature 
confessed  some  atonement  to  be  necessary  :  the  gospel  dis- 
covers that  the  necessary  atonement  is  made.' 

2.  When  several  semicolons  have  preceded,  and  a  still 
greater  pause  is  necessary,  in  order  to  mark  the  connecting 
or  concluding  sentiment ;  as,  *A  divine  legislator,  uttering 
his  voice  from  heaven  ;  an  almighty  governor,  stretching 
forth  his  arm  to  punish  or  reward ;  informing  us  of  perpet- 
ual rest  prepared  hereafter  for  the  righteous,  and  of  indig- 
nation and  wrath  awaiting  the  wicked:  these  are  the  con- 
siderations which  overawe  the  world,  which  support  integri- 
ty, and  check  guilt.' 

3.  The  Colon  is  commonly  used  when  an  example,  a 
quotation,  or  a  speech  is  introduced  :  as,  'The  Scriptures 
give  us  an  amiable  representation  of  the  Deity,  in  these 
>vords  :  'God  is  love.'  'He  was  often  heard  to  say :  'I  have 
done  with  the  world,  and  I  am  willing  to  leave  it.' 

The  propriety  of  using  a  colon,  or  gemicolon,  is  some- 


Period.)  PUNCTUATION.  249 

times  determinetl  by  a  eonjunction's  b^ing  expressed,  or  not 
expressed  :  as,  'Do  not  flatter  yourselves  with  the  hope  of 
perfect  happiness  r  there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  worlds' 
*Do  not  flatter  yourselves  with  the  hope  of  perfect  happi' 
ness ;  for  there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  woild/ 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Of  the  Period 

When  a  sentence  is  camplete  and  indepen- 
dent, and  not  connected  in  construction  witli 
the  following  sentence^  it  is  marked  with  a 
Period. 

Some  sentences  are  independent  of  each  other,  both  in 
their  sense  and  construction  :  as,  'Fear  God.  Honor  the 
king.  Have  charity  towards  all  men.'  Others  are  inde- 
pendent only  in  their  grammatical  construction  :  as,  *The 
Supreme  Being  changes  not,  either  in  his  desire  to  promote 
our  happiness,  or  in  the  plan  of  his  administration.  One 
light  always  shines  upon  us  from  above.  One  clear  and  dix 
rect  \YdX\\  is  alwaya  pointed  ouL  to  man-' 

A  period  may  sometimes  be  admitted  between  two  sen- 
tences, though  they  are  joined  by  a  disjunctive  or  copula- 
tive conjunction.  For  the  quality  of  the  point  does  not  al- 
ways depend  on  the  connective  particle,  but  on  the  sense 
and  structure  of  sentences:  as,  'Recreations,  though  they 
may  be  of  an  innocent  kind,  require  steady  government,  to 
keep  them  within  a  due  and  limited  province.  Bui  such 
as  are  of  an  irrci^ular  and  vicious  nature,  are  not  to  be  gov- 
erned, but  to  be  banished  from  every  well-regulated  mind.' 

'He  who  lifts  himself  up  to  the  observation  and  notice  of 
the  world,  is,  of  all  men,  the  least  likely  to  avoid  censure. 
For  he  draws  upon  himself  a  thousand  eyes,  that  will  nar- 
rowly inspect  him  in  every  part.' 

The  period  should  be  used  after  every  abbreviated  word; 
as,  ^M,B.  P.S.  N.B.  A.D.  O.S.  N,S.'&c, 


250  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.        {Tnterrogation, 

CHAPTER  V. 

Of  the  Dash^  N&tes  of  Interrogation  (uid  Exclatnaiion,  S:c. 

THE    DASH. 

The  Dash,  though  often  used  improperly  by  hasty  and 
incoherent  writers,  may  be  introduced  with  propriety, where 
the  sentence  breaks  off  abruptly  ;  Mhere  a  significant  pause 
is  required;  or  where  tliere  is  an  unexpected  turn  in  the 
Bentiment :  as,  *Tf  thou  art  he,  so  much  respected  once — but 
oh  !  how  fallen  !  how  degraded  !'  'If  acting  coulbrmably 
to  the  will  of  our  Creator; — if  promoting  the  welfare  of 
m  \nkind  around  us  ; — if  securing  our  own  happiness  ; — are 
objects  of  the  highest  moment  : — then  we  are  loudly  called 
upon,  to  cultivate  and  extend  the  great  interests  of  religion 
and  virtue.' 

'Here  lies  tlie  great — False  marble,  where  ? 
Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here.' 

Besides  the  points  which  marlc  the  pauses  in  discourse, 
there  are  others,  which  denote  a  different  moiiulatioa  of 
voice,  in  correspondence  to  the  sense.     These  are, 

The  Interrogation  point,         ? 

The  Exclamation  point,  ! 

The  Parenthesis,  () 

INTERROGATION. 

A  note  of  Interrogation  is  used  at  the  end  of  an  interrogf- 
ative  sentence  ;  that  is,  when  a  question  is  asked  :  as,  'Who 
will  accompany  me  T     'Shall  we  always  be  friends  V 

Questions  which  a  person  asks  himself  in  contemplation 
0U2;ht  to  be  terminated  by  points  of  interrogation  :  as,  'Who 
adorned  the  heavens  with  such  exquisite  beauty  T  'At 
whose  command  do  the  planets  perform  their  constant  rev- 
olutions /' 

A  point  of  interrogation  is  improper  after  sentences  which 
are  not  questions,  hut  only  exprewion?  of  admiration,  or  of 
some  other  emotion. 


Exclamation.)  PUNCTUATION.  251 

*How  many  instances  have  we  of  chastity  and  excellence 
in  the  fair  sex  !' 

*  With  what  prudence  does  the  son  of  Sirach  advise  us  in 
the  (•iioice  of  our  companions  !' 

A  note  of  interrogation  should  not  he  employed,  in  cases 
where  it  is  only  said  a  question  has  been  nsked,  and  where 
the  words  are  uoi  used  as  a  question.  'The  Cyprians  ask- 
^d  me  why  1  wept.'  To  give  this  sentence  the  interroga- 
tive form,  it  should  be  expressed  thus  :  'The  Cyprians  said 
to  me,  'Wily  dost  thou  weep  T 

EXCLAMATION. 

The  note  of  exclamation  is  applied  to  expressions  of  sud- 
den emotion,  surprise,  joy,  griei,  &c.  and  also  to  invocations 
or  addresses :  as,  My  friend  !  this  conduct  amazes  me  !' — 
*BIess  the  Lord,  O  my  soul !  and  forget  not  all  his  benefits  I' 

'Oh  !  had  we  both  our  humble  state  maintained, 
And  safe  in  i>eace  and  poverty  remain'd  !' 

'Hear  me,  O  Lord  !  for  thy  loving  kindness  is  great  f 

It  is  difficult  in  some  cases,  to  distinguish  between  an  in- 
lerrogative  and  exclamatory  sentence:  but  a  sentence,  in 
which  any  wonder  or  admiration  is  expressed,  and  no  ans- 
wer either  expected  or  implied,  may  be  always  properly  ter- 
minated by  a  note  of  exclamation  :  as,  *How  much  vanity 
in  the  pursuits  of  men  f  'Who  can  sufficiently  express  the 
goodn^B  of  our  creator !'  'What  is  more  amiable  than  vir- 
tue T 

The  interrogation  and  exclamatiDn  poiots  are  indetermi- 
nate as  to  their  quantity  or  time,  and  may  be  equivalent  ia 
that  respect  to  a  semicolon,  a  colon,  or  a  period,  as  the  sense 
njay  require.     They  mark  an  elevatipn  of  the  voice. 

The  utility  of  the  points  of  Interrogation  and  Exclama^ 
tion.  appears  from  the  following  examples,  in  which  the 
m«ja«ing  is  signified  and  discriminated  solely  by  the  pointu;^ 

^Whiit  condescension !' 
'What  condesf>enBion  ?' 
*Hiow  great  was  the  sacrifice  !* 
^Sow  great  wae  the  sacrifice  f 


252  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (ParenthesU. 

PARENTHESIS. 

A  Parenthesis  is  a  clause  containing  some  necessary  in- 
formation or  ust^ful  remark,  introducet!  into  the  body  of  a 
sentence  obliquely,  and  which  may  l>e  omitted  without  in- 
juring the  const  ruction  :  fis, 

'Krniw  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
Virtue  a'one  is   happiitess  !.eIow.' 

*To  gain  a  posthumous  reputf^.tion,  is  to  save  four  or  five 
lettfr  :s,  (for  whht  is  a  name  brsides?)  Irora  oblivion.' 

'Know  ye  not,  brethren,  (for  I  sp^ak  to  them  that  know 
the  law,)  how  that  the  law  bath  dominion  over  a  man  as 
long  as  he  liveth  T 

If  the  incidental  clause  is  short,  or  perfectly  coincides 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  it  is  not  pro|)er  to  use  the  pa- 
renthetical characters.  The  following  instances  r.re  there- 
fore  improper  usrs  of  the  parenthesis.  'Speak  you  (who 
saw)  his  wonders  in  the  deep.'  'Every  planet  (.s  (he  Cre- 
ator has  made  nothing  in  vain)  is  most  probably  inhabUed.' 
'He  found  th^^m  asleep  again  ;  (for  tl  eir  eyes  were  he.nvy  ;) 
neither  knew  (hey  what  to  answer  him.' 

The  parenthes's  m  irks  a  moderate  depression  of  the  voice, 
and  may  be  accompanied  with  every  point  which  the  sense 
would  require,  if  the  p:'.renthetical  characters  were  omitt-^d. 
It  oupht  to  terminate  with  the  same  kind  of  stop  which  the 
member  has,  that  precedes  it ;  and  to  coLtain  that  sior  v.ilh- 
in  the  parenthetical  marks.  We  must,  however,  except  ca- 
ses of  interrogation  and  exclamation  :  as,  'While  they  wjsh 
to  please,  (and  why  should  they  not  wish  it?)  they  disdam 
dishonorable  means.'  'It  was  represented  by  an  analogy, 
(OL,  how  inadequate  !)  which  was  borrowed  from,'  &c. 


There  are  other  characters,  which  are  frequently  made 
use  of  in  compositioD,  and  which  may  be  explained  in  this 
place,  viz. 

An  aj  «»tropbe,  marked  thus  ',  is  used  to  abbreviate  or 
shorten  51  word  :  as,  ^tis  for  it  isp  ihd*  for  tyunigh:  e^en  for 
even  :  judg'd  forjudged,  hs  •  hief  use  ir  to  shew  the  geni- 
tive case  of  nwma  :  as,  'A  mau'a  property ;  a  woman  s  or- 
nament.* 


Jccents,  Sfc.)  PUNCTUATIOIV . 

A  Caret  marked  thus  a  is  placed  where  some  word  hap- 
pens to  be  left  out  in  writing,  and  which  is  inserted  over  the 
line.  This  mark  is  also  called  a  circumflex,  when  placed 
over  a  particular  vowel,  to  denote  a  long  syllable  :  as,  'Eu- 
phrates.' 

A  Hyphen,  marked  thus  -  is  employed  in  connecting  com- 
pounded words :  as,  'Lap-dog,  tea-pot,  pre-existence,  self- 
love,  to-morrow,,  mother-in-law.' 

It  is  also  used  when  a  word  is  divided,  and  the  former 
part  is  written  or  printed  at  the  end  of  one  line,  and  the  lat- 
ter part  at  the  beginning?  of  another.  In  this  case,  it  is  pla- 
ced at  the  end  of  the  first  line,  not  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second. 

The  Acute  Accent,  marked  thus ' :  as,  'Fancy.''  The 
Grave  thus  ' :  as,  "-Fdvor,^ 

In  English  the  Accentual  marks  are  chiefly  used  in  fel- 
ling books  and  dictionaries,  to  mark  tfee  syllables  which  rC" 
quire  a  particular  stress  of  the  voice  in  pronunciation. 

The  stress  is  laid  on  long  and  short  syllables  indiscrimi- 
nately. In  order  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other, 
some  writers  of  dictionaries  have  placed  the  grave  on  the 
former,  and  the  acute  on  the  latter,  in  this  manner :  'Mi» 
mineral,  lively,  lived,  rival,  river.' 

The  proper  mark  to  distinguish  a  long  syllable  is  this  "  : 
as,  'Rosy  :'  and  a  short  one  thus  " :  as,  'Folly.'  This  last 
mark  is  called  a  breve. 

A  Diaeresis,  thus  marked  •%  consists  of  two  points  placed 
over  one  of  the  two  vowels  that  would  otherwise  make  a 
dipthong,  and  parts  them  into  two  syllables  :  as,  ^Creator, 
coadjutor,  aerial.' 

A  Section,  marked  thus  §,  is  the  division  of  a  discourse, 
or  chapter,  into  less  parts  or  portions. 

A  pf^ragraph  ^,  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject, 
or  a  sentence  not  connected  with  the  foregoing.  This 
character  is  chiefly  used  in  the  Old  and  in  the  new^  Testa- 
ment, 

A  Quotation  "  ".     Two  inverted  commas  are  generally 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  phrase  or  a  passage,  which  is 
quoted  or  transcribed  from  the  speaker  or  author  in  his  own 
X 


254  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

words  ;  and  two  commas  in  their  direct  position,  are  placed 
at  the  conclusion  :  as, 

*'The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." 
Crotchets  or  Brackets  [  ]  serve  to  enclose  a  word  or  sen- 
tence, which  is  to  be  ex[)lained  in  a  note,  or  the  explana- 
tion itself,  or  a  word  or  a  sentence  which  is  intended  to  sup- 
ply some  deticiency,  or  to  rectify  some  mistake. 

An  Index  or  Hand  QC^  points  out  a  remarkable  passage, 
or  something  that  requires  particular  attention. 

A  Brace  >  is  used  in  poetry  at  the  end  of  a  triplet  or 
three  lines,  which  have  the  same  rhyme. 

Braces  are  also  ust:d  to  connect  a  number  of  words  with 
one  common  term,  and  are  introduced  to  prevent  a  repeti- 
tion in  writing  or  printing. 

An  Asterisk,  or  little  star  '"^^  directs  the  reader  to  some 
note  in  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  Two  or 
three  asterisks,  generally  denote  the  omission  of  some  let- 
ters in  a  word,  or  of  some  bold  or  indelicate  expression,  or 
some  defect  in  the  manuscript. 

An  Ellipsis is  also  used,  when  some  letters  in  a 

word,  or  some  words  in  a  verse,  are  omitted:  as,  'The 
k — g/  for  'the  king.'* 

An  Obelisk,  which  is  marked  thus  t»  and  Parallels  thus  ||, 
together  with  the  letters  of  the  Alphabet,  and  figures,  are 
used  as  rtferencra  to  tlu'  niari:in  or  bottom  of  the  page. 

PAR  Vr.H  AIM  Id. 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  insert,  in  this  place,  a  few  gen- 
eral directions  respecting  the  division  of  a  composition  in- 
to paragraphs. 

l3itlVrenl  subjects,  uidess  they  are  very  short  or  very  nu- 
meious  in  small  compass,  should  be  separated  into  para- 
graph.?. 

VV  hen  one  subject  is  continued  to  a  considerable  length, 
the  larger  divisions  of  it  should  he  put  into  paragraphs. 
And  it  will  have  n  good  etTect  to  form  the  breaks,  when  it 
can  properly  be  done,  at  sentiments  of  the  most  weight,  or 
that  call  for  peculiar  attention. 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  Z55 

The  facts,  premises,  and  conclusions  of  a  subject,  some- 
times naturally  point  out  the  separafions  into  paragraphs  : 
and  each  of  these,  when  of  great  lensjth,  will  again  require 
sundivlsions  at  their  most  dislinctive  parts. 

In  cases  which  require  a  connected  subject  to  be  formed 
info  several  paragraphs,  a  suitable  turn  of  expression,  ex- 
hibiting the  conned  ion  of  the  broken  parts,  will  give  beau- 
ty and  force  to  the  division. 


DIRECTIONS  RESPECTING  THE  USE  OF  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

It  wns  formerly  the  custom  to  begin  every  noun  with  a 
capital :  but  as  this  practice  was  troublesome,  and  gave  the 
writing  or  printing  a  crowded  and  confused  appearance,  it 
has  f>een  discontinued.  It  is,  however,  very  proper  to  be- 
gin with  a  capital, 

1.  The  firsi  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or 
any  other  piece  of  writing. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period  ;  and,  if  the  two  senten- 
ces are  ioiaVy  independent ^  after  a  note  of  interrogation  or 
exclamation. 

But  if  a  number  of  interrogative  or  exclamatory  senten- 
ces are  thrown  into  one  general  group  ;  or  if  the  construc- 
tion of  the  latter  sentences  depends  on  the  former,  all  of 
them,  except  the  first,  may  begin  with  a  small  letter :  as, 
'How  long,  ye  simple  ones,  will  ye  love  simplicity  ?  and 
the  scorners  delight  in  their  scorning  ?  and  fools  hate  knowl- 
edge ?'     'Alas  !  how  different !  yet  how  like  the  same  !' 

3.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity :  as,  'God,  Jehovah, 
the  Almighty,  the  Supreme  Being,  the  Lord,  Providence, 
the  Messiah,  the  Holy  Spirit.' 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  streets,  mountains, 
rivers,  ships:  as,  *George,  York,  the  Strand,  the  Alps,  the 
Thames,  the  Seahorse.' 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places  : 
as,  'Grecian,  Roman,  English,  French,  and  Italian.' 

6.  The  first  word  of  a  quotation,  introduced  after  a  colon, 
or  when  it  is  in  a  direct  form  :  as,  'Always  remember  this 
ancient  maxim  :  'Know  thyself.'  Our  great  Lawgiver  says : 
'Take  up  thy  cross  daily,  and  follow  me.'  But  when  a 
quotation  is  brought  in  obliquely  after  a  comma,  a  capital  is 


2o6  APPENDIX. 

unnecessary :    as,  ^Solomon  observes,  Uhat  pride  goes  be- 
fore destruction.' 

The  first  word  of  an  example  may  also  very  properly  be- 
gin with  a  capital :  as,  ^Temptation  proves  our  virtue.' 

7.  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of 
books  :  as,  'Johnson's  Dictionary  of  the  English  Langiiage;' 
'Thomson's  Seasons;'    ^Rollin's  Ancient  History.' 

8.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry. 

9.  The  pronoun  I,  and  the  interjection  O,  are  written  in 
capitate  :  as,  'I  write  :'     'Hear,  O  earth  ;' 

Other  words,  besides  the  preceding,  may  begin  with  cap- 
itals, when  they  are  remarkably  emphatical,  or  the  princi- 
pal subject  of  the  composition 


-•^^ViY^WTOWH'^^V^^^—^ 


C  ordaining  Rules  and  Observations  for  cu^sistin^  Young  Per- 
sons ts  write  ivith  Perspicuity  and  Accuracy.  To  he  stud- 
ied after  they  have  acquired  a  competent  knowledge  of  Eng' 
lish  Gratntnar. 


PERSPICUITY 

Is  the  fundamental  quality  of  style  :  a  quality  bo  essential 
in  every  kind  of  writing,  that  for  the  want  of  it  nothing  can 
atone.  It  is  not  to  be  considered  as  merely  a  sort  of  nega- 
tive virtue,  or  freedom  from  defect.  It  has  higher  merit : 
it  is  a  degree  of  positive  beauty.  We  arc  pleased  with  an 
author,  and  consider  him  as  deserving  praise,  who  frees  us 
from  all  fatigue  of  searching  for  his  meaning;  who  carrifs 
us  through  his  subject  without  any  embarrassment  or  confu- 
sion; whose  style  flows  a' ways  like  a  limpid  stream,  thiougli 
which  we  see  to  the  very  bottom. 

The  study  of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression  con- 
sists of  two  parts:  and  requires  attention,  first,  to  Single 
Words  and  Phrases  ;  and  tb^n  to  {he  Ccnstnwtion  of  Sen- 
tences, 


Puriti/,)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  2,57 

PART  r. 

Of  Pcrspicmii/  and  Accuracy  of  Expression,  with  regard  to 
Single  Words  and  Phrases. 

Tfiese  qualities  of  st^^Ie,  considered  with  regard  (o  words 
and  phrases,  require  the  foliovving  properties  :  purity,  pro- 
priety, and  PRECISION. 

CHAPTER  I. 

OF  PURITY. 

Purity  of  style  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words,  and 
such  constructions,  as  belong  to  the  idiom  of  the  language 
which  we  speak;  in  opposition  to  words  and  phrases  that 
are  taken  from  other  languages,  or  that  are  ungranimatical, 
obsolete,  nevv^coined,  or  used  without  proper  authority. — 
All  such  words  and  phrases  as  the  following,  should  be  a- 
voided :  Quoth  he  ;  I  wist  not  ;  ereivkile  ;  behest ;  selfsame  ; 
delicatessc,  for  delicacy;  politesse,  for  politeness;  hauteur^ 
for  haughtiness ;  incumbennent,  connexity^  martyrised,  for  en- 
cumbrance, connexion,  martyred. 

The  introduction  of  foreign  and  learned  words,  unless 
where  necessity  requires  them,  should  never  be  admitted 
into  our  composition.  Barren  languages  may  need  such  as- 
sistance, but  ours  is  not  one  of  these.  A  multitude  of  Latia 
words,  in  particular,  have,  of  jate,  been  poured  in  upon  our 
language.  On  some  occasions,  they  give  an  appearance  of 
elevation  and  dignity  of  style ;  but  they  often  render  it  stiff 
and  apparently  forced.  In  general,  a  plain,  native  style,  is 
more  intelligible  to  all  readers ;  and,  by  a  proper  manage- 
ment of  words,  it  can  be  made  as  strong  and  expressive  as 
this  Latinised  English,  or  any  foreign  idioms. 

CHAPTER  II. 

OF  PROPRIETY. 

PropPvIety  of  language  is  the  selection  of  such  v/ords  as 
the  best  usage  has  a{)propriated  to  those  ideas,  which  we 
intend  to  express  by  them ;  in  opposition  to  low  expressions^ 

X2 


268  APPENDIX.  {Propriehf. 

and  to  words  and  phrases  which  would  be  less  sisinificant 
of  the  ide<»8  that  we  mean  to  convey.  Style  raay  he  pure, 
that  is,  it  may  be  stiictly  English,  without  Scotticisms  or 
Gallicisms,  or  ungrammatical,  irr<\^ular  expressions  of  any 
kind,  and  may,  nevertheless,  be  deficient  in  propriety  :  for 
the  words  may  be  ill  chosen,  not  adapted  to  the  subject,  nor 
fully  expressive  of  the  author's  sense. 

To  preserve  propriety,  therefore,  in  our  words  and  phra- 
ses, we  mi3st  avoid  lord  expressions  ;  supply  words  that  are 
wantins: ;  be  careful  not  to  use  the  same  word  indifferent 
senses  ;  avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  technical  phrases,  cgiiivo- 
cal  or  ambiguous  wards,  unintelligible  expressions,  and  all 
such  words  and  phrases  as  are  not  adapted  to  our  meaning, 

1.  A\o\A  low  expressions ;  such  as,  'Topsy  tnrvy,  hurly 
burly,  pellmell ;  having  a  month's  mind  for  a  thing;  curry- 
ing favor  with  a  person;  dancing  attendance  on  the  great,' 
&c. 

'Meantime  the  Britons,  left  to  shift  for  themselves,  were 
forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence.'  The  phrase 
Hift  to  shift  for  themselves'  is  rather  a  low  phrase,  and  too 
much  in  the  familiar  style  to  be  proper  in  a  grave  treatise. 

2.  Supply  nords  that  are  wanting,  *  Arbitrary  power  I 
look  upon  as  a  greater  evil  than  anarchy  itself,  as  much  as 
a  savage  is  a  happier  state  of  life  than  a  slave  at  the  oar ;' 
it  should  have  been,  *as  much  as  the  state  of  a  savage  is 
happier  than  that  of  a  slave  at  the  oar.'  *He  has  not  treat-^ 
ed  this  subject  liberally,  by  the  views  of  others  as  well  as 
his  own  ;'  -By  adverting  to  the  views  of  others,'  would  have 
been  better.  *This  generous  action  greatly  increased  his 
former  services  ;'  it  should  have  been,  'greatly  increased  t/ia 
2iurit  of  hi?  former  services.'  *By  the  pleasures  of  the  im- 
agination or  Taney  (which  I  shall  use  promiscuously)  I  here 
mean,'  &:c.  This  passage  ought  to  have  had  the  word 
terms'  suppiied,  which  would  bave  made  it  correct :  nerms 
which  1  shall  use  promiscuously.' 

It  may  be  proper  in  this  place  to  observe,  that  articles 
and  prepositions  are  sometimes  improperly  omitted;  as, 
Jn  the  following  instances  :    *How  imnaeuse  the  differ«nce 


ProprielT/.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  259 

between  the  pious  and"  profane  !'  *Death  is  the  common  lot 
of  all ;  of  good  men  and  bad.'  They  should  have  had  the 
article  and  preposition  repeated  :  *Hovv  immense  the  ditfer- 
cnce  between  the  pious  and  the  profane !'  'Death  is  the 
common  lot  of  all ;  of  good  men  and  of  bad.' 

The  repetition  of  articles  and  prepositions  is  proper, 
-when  we  in(end  to  point  out  the  objects  of  which  we  speak, 
as  distinguished  from  each  other,  or  in  contrast :  and  when 
we  wish  that  the  reader's  attention  should  rest  on  that  dis- 
tinction :  as,  'Our  sight  is  at  once  the  most  delightful,  and 
the  most  useful  of  all  our  senses.' 

3.  hi  the  sa77ie  sentence,  be  careful  not  to  use  the  same  word 
too  frequently,  nor  in  different  senses.  'One  may  have  an 
air  which  proceeds  from  a  just  sufficiency  and  knowledge  of 
the  matter  before  him,  which  may  naturally  produce  some 
motions  of  his  head  and  body,  which  might  become  the 
bench  better  than  the  bar.' 

The  pronoun  which  is  here  thrice  used,  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  throw  obscurity  over  the  sentence. 

'Gregory  favored  the  undertaking,  for  bo  other  reason 
than  this,  that  the  manager,  in  countenance,  favored  his 
friend.'     It  should  have  been,  'resembled  his  friend.' 

'Charity  expands  our  hearts  in  love  to  God  and  man  :  it 
is  by  the  virtue  of  charity  that  the  rich  are  blessed,  and  the 
poor  supplied.'  In  this  sentence,  the  word  'charity'  is  im- 
properly used  in  two  different  senses;  for  the  highest  benev- 
olence, and  for  almsgiving. 

4.  Avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  technical  terms.  To  in- 
form those  who  do  not  understand  sea-phrases,  that  'We 
tacked  to  the  larboard,  and  stood  off  to  sea,'  would  be  ex- 
pressing ourselves  very  obscurely.  Technical  phrases  not 
being  in  current  use,  but  only  the  peculiar  dialect  of  a  par- 
ticular class,  we  should  never  use  them  but  when  we  know 
they  will  be  understood. 

5.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  words.  The  following 
sentences  are  exceptionable  in  this  respect.  'As  for  such 
animals  as  are  mortal  or  noxious,  we  have  a  right  to  destroy 
them.'  'I  long  since  learned  to  like  nothing  but  what  you 
cfo,'    'He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  crown,'  may  denote 


260  APPENDIX.  {Propriety/. 

either,  ^Nothing  was  less  aimed  at  by  him  Ihart  the  crown,' 
or,  'Nothing  inferior  to  the  crown  coukl  satisfy  his  ambi- 
tion,' '1  will  havemerc7/y  and  not  sacrifice.'  The  first  part 
of  this  sentence  denotes,  'I  will  exercise  mercy  ;'  whereas 
it  is  in  this  place  employed  to  signify,  'I  require  others  to 
exercise  it.'  The  translation  should  therefore  have  been 
accommodated  to  these  different  meanings.  'Thej^  were 
both  much  more  ancient  among  the  Persians,  than  Zoroas- 
ter or  Zerdusht.'  The  or  in  this  sentence  is  equivocal.  It 
serves  either  as  a  copulative  to  synonymous  words,  or  as  a 
disjunctive  of  different  things.  If,  therefore,  the  student 
should  not  know  that  Zoroaster  and  Zerduslit  meant  the 
same  person,  he  will  mistake  the  sense.  'The  rising  tomb, 
a  lofty  column  b  <re  :'  'And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire 
addrest.'  Did  the  tomb  bear  the  column,  or  the  column  the 
tomb  ?   Did  the  son  address  the  sire,  or  the  sire  the  son  ? 

6.  Avoid  wiifitelligihle  and  inconsistent  ivords  or  phrases, 
*I  have  o!)3erved,'  says  Steele,  'that  the  superiority  among 
these  coffeehouse  politicians,  proceeds  from  an  opinion  of 
gallantry  and  fashion.'  This  sentence,  considered  in  itself, 
evidently  convej'S  no  meaning.  First,  it  is  not  said  whose 
opinion,  their  own,  or  that  of  others  :  Secondly,  it  is  not 
said  what  opinion,  or  of  what  sort,  favorable  or  unfavorable, 
true  or  false,  but  in  general,  'an  opinion  cS  gallantry  and 
fashion,'  which  contains  no  definite  expression  of  any  mean- 
ing. With  the  joint  assistance  of  the  context,  reflection, 
and  conjecture,  we  shall  perhaps  conclude  that  the  author 
intended  to  say,  'That  the  rank  among  these  politicians 
ivas  determined  by  the  opinion  generally  entertained  of  the 
rank,  in  point  of  gallantry  and  fashion,  that  each  of  thera 
had  attained.' 

'This  temper  of  mind,'  says  an  author,  speaking  of  hu- 
mility, 'keeps  our  understanding  tight  about  us.'  Whether 
the  author  had  any  meaning  in  this  expression,  or  what  it 
was,  is  not  easy  to  determine. 

Sometimes  a  writer  runs  on  in  a  specious  verbosity,  amus- 
ing his  reader  with  synonymous  terras  and  identical  propo- 
sitions, well  turned  periods,  and  high  sounding  words  :  but 
at  the  same  time,  using  those  words  so  indefinitely,  that  the 


Propriety:)  PERSPICUITY,  4c.  2G1 

reader  can  either  affix  no  meaning  at  all  to  them,  or  may  af- 
fix to  them  almost  any  meaning  he  pleases. 

'If  it  is  asked,'  says  a  late  writer,  'whence  arises  the  har- 
mony, or  beauty  of  language  ?  what  are  the  rules  for  ob- 
taining it  ?  the  answer  is  obvious.  Whatever  renders  a 
period  sweet  and  pleasant,  makes  it  also  graceful.  A  good 
ear  is  the  gift  of  nature ;  it  may  be  much  improved,  but  not 
acquired  by  art.  Whoever  is  possessed  of  it,  will  scarcely 
need  dry  critical  precepts  to  enable  him  to  judge  of  a  true 
rhythmus,  and  melody  of  composition.  Just  numbers,  ac- 
curate proportions,  a  musical  symphony,  magnificent  fig- 
ures, and  that  decorum  which  is  the  result  of  all  these,  are 
unison  to  the  human  mind.' 

The  followio;^  is  a  poetical  example  of  the  same  nature, 
in  which  there  is  scarcely  a  glimpse  of  meaning,  though  it 
was  composed  by  an  eminent  poet. 

From  harmony,  from  heavenly  harmony, 

This  universal  frame  began  : 

From  harmony  to  harmony 
Thro'  all  the  compass  of  the  notes  it  ran, 
The  diapason  closing  full  in  man. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said,  that  in  writings  of  this  stamp, 
we  must  accept  of  sound  instead  of  sense ;  being  assured 
that  if  we  meet  with  little  that  can  inform  the  judgment, 
we  shall  at  least  find  nothing  that  will  offend  the  ear.  And 
perhaps  this  is  one  reason  that  we  pass  over  such  smooth 
language,  without  suspecting  that  it  contains  little  or  no 
meaning.  In  order  to  write  or  speak  clearly  and  intelligi- 
bly, two  things  are  especially  requisite :  one,  that  we  have 
clear  and  distinct  ideas  of  our  subject ;  and  the  other,  that 
our  words  be  approved  signs  of  those  ideas.  That  persons 
who  think  confusedly,  should  express  themselves  obscurely, 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at ;  for  embarrassed,  obscure,  and 
feeble  sentences,  are  generally,  if  not  always,  the  result  of 
embarrassed,  obscure  and  feeble  thought ;  but  that  persons 
of  judgment,  who  are  accustomed  to  scrutinize  their  ideas, 
and  the  signification  of  their  words,  should  sometimes  write 
without  any  meaning,  is,  at  first  sight,  matter  of  admiration. 
This,  however,  when  further  considered,  appears  to  be  an 
effect  derive^  from  the  same  cause,  iadistinctness  of  con- 


262  APPENDfX.  {Propriefy. 

ception,  and  in.illenlion  to  tlie  exact  import  of  words.  The 
occisio.'is  on  which  we  are  most  apt  to  spe;^kand  write  in 
this  uniritellijrihlp  manner,  are  the  three  rollowing;. 

'Vht^jir.st  is,  where  there  is  an  exuberance  of  metaphor. 
Writers  who  are  fond  of  the  metaphoric  style,  are  general- 
Ij'^  disposed  to  continue  it  too  Ions:,  and  to  pnrsne  it  too  far. 
They  are  often  misled  by  a  des«re  of  tlourisliiiig  on  the  sev- 
eral properties  of  a  metapiior  whicli  they  have  ushered  into 
the  discourse,  without  takin<^  the  trouble  (o  examine  wheth- 
er there  are  any  cpi  ililies  in  the  subject,  to  which  these  pro- 
perties can,  with  Justice  and  perspicuity,  he  applied.  The 
fbllowinfiT  instance  of  this  sort  of  writing  is  from  an  author 
of  considerabh^  eminence.  'Men  must  acquire  a  very  pe- 
culiar and  strong;  habit  of  turning  their  view  inward,  in  or- 
der to  e\[)Iore  the  interior  rejrioMs  and  recesses  of  the  mirnl, 
(he  hotlow  caverns  uf  cieep  thought,  the  i-rivate  seats  of 
fancy,  and  the  wastes  and  wildernesses,  as  well  fis  the  more 
fruitlul  and  cultivated  tracts  of  this  obscure  climate.'  A 
most  wonderful  way  of  tellini^  U8,  that  it  is  difficult  to  (race 
the  0[)eratious  of  the  mind.  The  author  having;  determin- 
ed to  re])resent  the  human  mind  under  tlie  meta|>hor  of  h 
country,  resolved  in  his  thoughts  the  vurious  ol  jects  which 
miji;ht  be  found  in  a  country,  without  considerinsj  whether 
there  are  any  thiuo:8  in  the  mind  j^roperly  analogous  to  these. 
Hence  the  strange  parade  he  makes  with  regions  t\m\  irass- 
£s\  hollow  caverns  and  private  seeds,  wastes  and  wildernesses^ 
fruitful  and  cultivated  tracts  ;  words  which,  though  they 
have  a  precise  meaning,  as  af^plied  to  country,  have  no  def- 
inite signification,  as  applied  to  mind. 

The  second  occimow  of  our  Ut'ww^  apt  to  write  unintelli- 
gibly, is  that  wherein  the  terms  most  frequently  occurring, 
denote  thin;:s  which  are  of  a  conijdicated  nature,  and  to 
which  the  mjud  is  not  sutficienlly  familiarised.  Of  these 
the  instances  are  numberless  in  every  tongue;  sucl)  as  gov- 
ernment, church,  state,  constitution,  power,  legislature,  ju- 
risdiction, jfcc. 

The  third  and  principal  occasion  of  unintelligihle  writing 
is,  when  the  terms  employed,  are  very  abstract,  and  conse- 
quently of  very  extensive  signification.  Thus  the  word 
lion  is  more  distinctly  api)rehended  by  the  mind  than  the 
word  beast,  beasi  than  animal,  and  animal  than  btin^. 


Pmiirichj.)  P'  nSPiCUlTV,  kc.  263 

The  7th  an«l  l:isf  rule  for  nreSvMvina*  pro»  'iely  in  our 
Avor<ls  and  phrases,  is,  to  aro'ti)  ill  tUosc  whl  h  t.:  not  adapted 
to  the  ideas  we  ruan  to  ccr^ni'nicale  ;  or  nuich  are  less  sig- 
nificant than  cihtrs,  cf  those  id^as,  'He  Iftils  an}^  sorrow 
(hat  ca»i  arrive  at  man  ;'  better  'happen  to  rnan.'  'The  con- 
scinice  of  apj)roviog  one's  self  a  benefactor,  is  the  best  re- 
compf  iise  for  being  so ;'  it  should  have  been  '•  consciousness, "^ 
'He  firinly  believed  the  divine  j^rrce/;f,  'There  is  not  a  spar- 
row Tails  to  the  i^rouiui,'  &c.    Jt  should  have  been  '•doctrine,'* 

'It  is  but  opening  the  eye,  anci  the  scene  enters.'  A  scene 
cannot  i)e  said  to  enler :  an  actor  enters;  but  a  scene  ap- 
pears or  presents  itself. 

'We  immediately  assent  to  the  beauty  of  an  object,  with- 
out inquiring  into  the  causes  of  it :'  it  is  proper  to  say,  that 
we  assent  to  the  truth  of  a  proposition  ;  hut  it  cannot  so 
well  be  said,  that  we  assent  to  the  heauty  cf  an  object,  Ac- 
hiotvledge  would  have  ex^'ressed  the  sense  with  propriety. 

'The  sense  of  feeling  can,  indeed,  give  us  a  notion  of  ex- 
tension, shape,  and  all  other  ideas  that  enter  at  the  eye,  ex- 
cept colors.'  Extension  and  shape  cart,  with  no  propriety, 
be  called  ideas  ;  they  ai*e  properties  of  matter.  Neither  is 
it  accurate,  to  speak  of  any  sense  giving  us  a  notion  of  ideas : 
our  senses  give  us  the  ideas  themselves.  The  meaning  of 
the  sentence  would  have  been  proper,  and  much  clearer,  if 
the  author  had  expressed  himself  thus  :  'The  gense  of  feel- 
ing can,  indeed,  give  us  the  idea  of  extension,  figure,  and 
alt  the  other  properties  of  matter,  which  are  perceived  by 
the  eye,  except  colors.' 

'The  covetous  man  never  has  a  sufficiency;  although  he 
has  what  is  enough  for  nature;'  is  much  inferior  to,  'The 
covetous  man  never  has  enough  ;  although  he  has  what  is 
sufftcient  for  nature.' 

'A  traveller  observes  the  m©st  striking  objects  he  sees ;  a 
general  remarks  all  the  motions  of  his  enemy  :'  better  thus; 
'A  tiaveller  remarks^  &c.    'A  general  ohserves^  &c. 

'This  measure  enlarged  his  school,  and  obliged  him  to 
increase  the  building  :'  it  should  be,  'increased  his^  school ;' 
and  '■enlarge  the  building.' 

'He  ap})lied  the  medicine  before  the  poison  had  time  to 
work  :'  better  thus>  'He  applied  an  antidote,^  &c. 


^64  APPENDIX.  (Precision. 

*Tbe  poison  of  a  suspicious  temper  frequently  throws  out 
its  bad  qualities,  on  all  who  are  within  its  reach :'  better, 
*throws  out  its  malignant  qualities.' 

'I  will  go  except  I  should  be  ill ;'  'I  saw  them  all  unless 
two  or  three  :'  corrected  thus;  *unkss  I  should  be  ill ;'  ^cx- 
ccpt  two  or  three.' 

A  selection  of  words  and  phrases,  which  are  peculiarly 
expressive  of  the  ideas  we  design  to  communicate ;  or  which 
are  as  particular  and  determinate  in  their  signification,  as 
is  consistent  with  the  nature  and  the  scope  of  the  discourse; 
[)0S8esse3  great  beauty,  and  cannot  fail  to  produce  goocl 
<iTect. 

CHAPTER  III. 

OP  PRECISION. 

Precision  is  the  third  requisite  of  perspicuity  with  res- 
pect to  words  and  phrases.  It  signififs  retrenching  super- 
lluities,  and  pruning  the  expression,  so  as  to  exhibit  neither 
more  nor  less  than  an  exact  copy  of  the  person's  idea  who 
uses  it. 

The  words  used  to  express  ideas  may  be  faulty  in  three 
respects.  1st,  1'hey  may  not  express  the  idea  which  the 
author  intends,  but  some  other  which  only  resembles  it : 
secondly,  They  may  ex[)re8s  that  idea,  but  not  fully  and 
completely  :  thirdly,  Tliey  may  express  it,  together  with 
something  more  than  is  intended.  Precision  stands  oppos- 
ed to  these  three  faults,  but  chiefly  to  the  last.  Propriet 
implies  a  freedom  from  the  two  former  faults.  The  r:%j^s 
which  are  used  may  be  propa' ;  that  is,  they  may  express 
the  idea  intended,  and  they  may  express  it  fully  ;  but  to  be 
precise^  signifies  that  they  express  thai  idea  and  no  inore. 

The  use  and  importance  of  precision  may  be  deduced 
from  the  nature  of  the  human  mind.  Ft  never  can  view, 
clearly  and  distinctly,  more  than  one  object  at  a  time.  If 
ft  must  look  at  two  or  three  together,  especially  objects 
that  have  resemblance  or  connexion,  it  finds  itself  confus- 
ed and  embarrassed..  It  cannot  clearly  perceive  in  what 
they  agree,  and  in  what  they  differ.       Thus,  were  any  ob- 


Prcclnu:i.)  FERSPICUiTY,  ^c.  2B5 

ject,  suppose  some  animal,  to  be  presented  to  my  view,  of 
whose  structure  I  wished  to  form  a  distinct  notion,  I  should 
desire  all  its  trappings  to  be  taken  otT;  I  should  require  it  to 
be  brought  before  me  by  itself,  and  to  stand  alone,  that  there 
m'l^ht  be  nothing  to  divide  my  attention.  The  same  is  the 
case  with  words.  If,  when  any  one  would  inform  me  of  his 
meaning,  he  also  tells  me  more  than  what  conveys  it ;  if  he 
joins  foreign  circumstances  to  the  principal  objects;  if,  by 
unnecessarily  varying  the  expression,  he  shifts  the  point  of 
view,  and  makes  me  see  sometimes  the  object  itself,  and 
eometimes  another  thing  that  is  connected  with  it,  he  there- 
b}^  oliliges  me  to  look  on  several  objects  at  once,  and  I  lose 
sight  of  the  principal.  He  loads  the  animal  he  is  showing 
me,  with  so  many  trappings  and  collars,  that  I  cannot  dis- 
tinctly view  it :  or  he  brings  so  many  of  the  same  species 
before  me,  somewhat  resembling,  and  yet  somewhat  differ- 
ing, that  I  see  none  of  them  clearly.  When  an  author  tells 
me  of  his  hero's  courage  in  the  day  of  battle,  the  expression 
is  precise,  and  I  understand  it  fully  :  but  if,  from  the  desire 
of  multiplying  words,  he  shouk!  praise  his  courage,  and  for- 
titude ;  at  the  moment  he  joins  these  words  together,  my 
idea  begins  to  waver.  He  means  to  express  one  quality 
more  strongly,  but  he  is  in  truth  expressing  two :  courage 
resists  danger;  fortitude  supports  pain.  The  occasion  of 
exerting  each  of  these  qualities  is  different ;  and  being  led 
to  think  of  both  together,  when  only  one  of  them  should  be 
considered,  my  view  is  rendered  unsteady,  and  my  concep- 
tion of  the  object  indistinct. 

All  subjects  do  not  equally  require  precision.  It  is  suffi- 
cient on  many  occasions,  that  we  have  a  general  view  of 
the  meaning.  The  subject,  perhaps,  is  of  the  known  and 
familiar  kind,  and  we  are  in  no  hazard  of  mistaking  the 
sense  of  the  author,  though  every  word  which  he  uses  is  not 
precise  and  exact. 

Many  authors  offei^d  against  this  rule  o?  precision.  A  con- 
siderable one,  in  «l<'scribing  a  bad  action,  expr«^sses  himself 
thus  :  'It  is  to  remove  a  good  and  orderly  affection,  and  to 
introduce  an  ill  or  disorderly  one ;  to  commit  an  action  that 
is  ill*  immoral  and  unjust ;  to  do  ill,  or  to  act  in  prejudice 
of  integrity,  good  nature  aail  worth/ 
Y 


5G6  APPENDiX.  (Precision, 

A  crowd  of  unmenning  or  useless  words  is  brought  toge- 
ther by  some  authors,  who,  afraid  of  exprtssiug  themselves 
in  ii  common  and  ordinary  mnnner,  and  aHured  by  ao  ap- 
pearaHce  of  splendor,  surround  every  thing  which  they  mean 
to  say  with  a  certain  cOj)ious  loquacity. 

The  great  source  of  a  loose  styie  in  opposition  to  precis- 
ion, is  the  injudicious  use  of  the  words  ierined  sijncnTpnom, 
They  are  called  synonymous,  because  they  agree  in  ex- 
pressing one  principal  idea ;  but,  for  the  most  part,  if  not 
idwaya,  they  express  it  with  some  diversity  ia  the  circum- 
stances. 

The  following  instances  show  a  ditference  in  the  meaning 
of  words  reputed  synonymous,  and  point  out  the  use  of  at- 
tending,  with  care  and  sirictncss, to  the  exact  import  of  words, 

CusloHy  habit, — Custom,  respects  the  action  ;  habit,  the 
actor.  By  custom  we  mean  the  trequent  repetition  of  the 
«ame  act :  by  habit,  the  effect  which  that  repetition  produces 
on  the  mind  or  body.  By  the  custom  of  walking  often  iu 
the  streets,  one  acquires  a  habit  of  idleness. 

Fride^  vamiy. — Pride  makes  us  esteem  ourselves;  vani^ 
ty,  makes  us  uesire  the  esteem  of  others.  It  is  just  to  say, 
that  a  man  is  too  proud  to  be  vain. 

Haughtiness,  disdain, — Haughtiness  is  founded  on  the 
high  opinion  we  entertain  of  ourselves;  disdain,  on  the  low 
opinion  we  have  of  others. 

Only,  alone. — Only,  imports  that  there  is  no  other  of  the 
same  kind ;  alone,  imports  being  accompanied  by  no  othei". 
An  only  child,  is  one  that  has  neither  brother  nor  sister:  a 
child  alone,  is  one  who  is  left  by  itself.  There  is  a  differ- 
ence, therefore,  in  precise  language,  between  these  two 
prases  :  'Virtue  only  makes  us  happy  ;'  and  'Virtue  alone 
make  B  us  happy.* 

Wisdom,  prxi4cncc. — Wisdom  leads  us  to  speak  and  act 
what  is  most  proper.  Prudence  prevents  our  speaking  or 
acting  improperly. 

Etitire,  complete, — A  thing  is  entire  by  wanting  none  of 
its  parts  :  complete,  by  wanting  none  of  the  appendages 
tjiat  belong  to  it.  A  man  may  have  an  entire  house  to 
himself,  and  yet  not  have  one  complete  apartment. 

Suqin'iscd,  astonished,  flmazed,  covfoimded. — 1  am  surprii- 
ed  with  what  m  dcw  or  unexpected  f  I  «m  aetooiihed  at 


Precision.)  PERSPICUITY,  kc.  2C^ 

what  is  vast  or  great ;  I  am  amazed  at  what  is  incompre- 
hensible ;  ]  am  coofouaded  by  what  is  shocking  or  terrible. 

TranquillitT/,  peace,  cahn, — Tranquillity  respects  a  situa- 
tion fiee  from  trouble,  considered  in  itself;  peace,  the  safi?ie 
situation  with  respect  to  any  causes  that  might  interrupt  il; 
calm,  with  regard  to  a  disturbed  situation'  goin^  before  or 
following  it.  A  good  man  enjoys  tranquillity,  in  hiuiself ; 
peace,  with  others;  and  calm,  after  the  storm. 

These  are  some  of  the  numerous  instances  of  words,  m 
our  language,  whose  significations  approach,  but  are  not 
precisely  the  same.  The  more  the  distinction  in  the  mean- 
ji  g  of  such  words  is  attended  to,  the  more  clearly  and  forci- 
bly shall  we  speak  or  write.  It  may  not,  on  all  occasions, 
be  necessary  to  pny  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  very  nice 
distinctions,  yet  the  foregoing  instances  shew  the  utility  of 
some  general  care  to  understand  the  distinct  import  of  our 
words. 

While  we  are  attending  to  precision,  we  must  be  on  our 
guard,  lest,  from  the  desire  of  pruning  too  closely,  we  re- 
trench all  copiousness.  Scarcely  in  any  language  are  there 
two  words  that  convey  precisely  the  same  idea ;  a  person 
thoroughly  conversant  in  the  propriety  of  the  language,  will 
always  be  able  to  observe  something  that  distinguishes 
Ihem.  As  they  are  like  different  shades  of  the  same  color, 
an  accurate  writer  can  employ  them  to  great  advantage,  by 
using  them  so  as  to  heighten  and  complete  the  object  which 
he  presents  to  us.  He  supplies  by  one  what  was  wanting 
m  the  other,  to  the  strength  or  to  the  finishing,  ol  the  image 
which  he  means  to  exhibit.  But,  for  this  purpose,  he  must 
be  attentive  to  the  choice  of  his  words,  and  not  employ 
ihem  carelessly,  merely  for  the  sake  of  filling  up  a  period, 
or  of  rounding  or  diversify  ing  his  language,  as  if  their  sig- 
nification were  exactly  the  same,  while  in  truth  it  is  not. 
To  unite  copiousness  and  precision^  to  be  full  and  easy,  and 
at  the  same  time  correct  and  exact  in  the  choice  of  every 
woid,  is  no  doubt  one  of  the  highest  and  most  difScult  at- 
tainments in  writing. 


Zat  AFfENDlX.  {rer.'T.icuHj;. 

PART  II. 

Of  PERSPICUITY  a7ld  ACCURACY  of  EXPRESSION,  TvHh  rCSpCCt 
to  the  CONSTRUCTION  of  SENTENCES. 

Sentences  in  general,  should  neither  he  very  long,  nor 
very  shoii  :  long  ones  require  clo?e  attention  to  make  us 
clearly  perceive  the  connexion  of  the  several  parts;  and 
short  ones  arc  apt  to  l)reak  the  sense,  and  Vrcaken  the  con- 
nexion of  thou2;ht.  Yet  occasionally  they  may  botli  he  used 
i.ith  force  and  propriety ;  as  may  he  seen  in  Ihe  following 
«entence«i. 

*iryo:i  look  ahout  3'ou,  and  consider  the  lives  of  others  as 
"Vvell  as  your  own  ;  if  you  think  how  lew  are  Lorn  with  T.on- 
or,  and  how  many  die  without  name  or  children;  how  little 
beauty  we  see,  and  how  lew  frituds  we  hear  of;  how  much 
poverty,  and  how  many  diseas  3  there  are  in  the  world  ;  you 
"ivill  fall  down  upon  your  knees,  and  instead  of  repining  at 
one  affliction,  will  ac'niire  so  many  hiessif'gs  which  you  have 
received  from  the  Divine  hand.'  This  is  a  sentence  com- 
posed of  several  nKnil,eis  linked  toi^ether,  and  hanging  up- 
on one  another, so  that  the  gi>nse  of  the  whole  is  not  brought 
out  till  the  close.  The  followini;  is  an  example  of  one  in 
which  the  &ense  is  forrrud  into  short,  indefjendent  propoii- 
f Ions,  each  corn[»lcte  within  itself.  '1  conf»gs,  it  was  want 
of  consideration  that  mode  we  an  autlior.  1  wrote  Lecause 
it  amused  me.  1  corrected,  because  it  was  as  pleasant  to 
me  to  correct  as  to  wriie.  J  puhl'.bhed,  because  1  was  told 
I  might  [jleaee  such  as  it  was  a  credit  to  pleiise.' 

A  train  ol  tt  nlcnces,  conshuctcd  in  the  same  manner,  and 
with  the  same  number  of  munl^ers,  should  never  he  allow- 
ed to  siiCceed  one  anolhcr.  A  long  succession  of  cither 
long  or  short  sentencts  should  also  be  avoided;  for  the  ear 
tires  of  either  of  them  when  too  long  continued-  W  hereas, 
by  a  proper  mixture  of  lung  and  short  periods,  and  of  peri- 
ods v'\riously  constructed,  not  only  the  ear  is  gratified  ;  but 
animaiion  and  force  are  givtn  lo  our  style. 

We  now  proceed  to  consider  the  things  most  essential  to 
an  accurate  and  perfect  sentence.  They  appear  to  he  the 
four  follow ing  :     1.  clearness.     2.  unity.     3.  strfnctiu 

4.  A  JUPlCfOUa  USE  QF  the  FIGURES  OF  SPJIKCU, 


Clearness.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  2Qd 

CHAPTER  I. 

OF  THE  CLEARNESS  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

Purity^  profjriety,  and  precision,  in  words  and  plirasea 
separately  considered,  have  already  been  explained,  and 
shewn  to  be  necessary  (o  perspicuous  and  accurate  writing. 
The  just  relation  of  sentences,  and  the  psrls  of  sentences, 
to  one  another,  and  the  due  arrangement  of  the  whole,  are 
the  subjects  which  remain  to  be  discussed. 

The  first  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence  is  Clearness. 

Whatever  leaves  the  mind  in  any  sort  of  suspense  as  to 
the  meaning,  ought  to  be  avoided.  Obscurity  arises  from 
two  causes ;  either  fiom  a  wrong  choice  of  words  or  a  wrong 
arrangement  of  them.  The  choice  of  words  and  phrases,  ae 
far  as  regards  perspicuity,  has  been  already  considered* 
The  disposition  of  them  comes  now  under  consideration. 

The  first  thing  to  be  studied  here,  is  grammatical  propri- 
ety. But  as  the  grammar  of  our  language  is  comparatively 
not  extensive,  there  may  be  an  obscureorderof  words,  where 
there  is  no  transgression  of  any  grammatical  rule.  The  re- 
let t  ions  of  words,  or  members  of  a  period,  are,  with  us,  ascer- 
tained only  by  the  position  in  which  they  stand. 

Hence  a  capital  rule  in  the  arrangement  of  sentences  is, 
that  the  words  or  members,  most  clearly  related,  should  be 
placed  in  tiie  sentence  as  near  to  each  other  as  possible,  so 
as  to  make  their  mutual  relation  clearly  appear.  It  will  be 
proper  to  produce  some  instances,  in  order  to  show  the  im- 
portance of  this  rule. 

1.  In  the  position  of  advcrls.  'The  Romans  understood 
liberty,  at  least  as  well  as  we.'  These  words  are  capable  oi^ 
two  different  senses,  according  as  the  emphasis  in  reading 
them,  is  laid  uj)on  liberty^  or  upon  at  least  The  words 
should  have  been  thus  arranged:  'The  Romans  understood 
lioerty  as  well,  at  least,  as  we.' 

'T«iieism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism,  or  atheism.' 
Is  It  meant  that  theism  is  capable  of  nothing  else  besides 
be^ag  opposed  to  polytheism,  or  atheism  ?  This  is  what  the 
^^ords  literally  import,  through  the  \froiig  placing  of  tbt^  ^d- 

y2 


^70  AFPE^^6lX.  {Crearnesg, 

verb  onliK  It  shoulJ  have  been,  'Theism  can  be  opposed 
only  to  polytheism  or  atheism.' 

'i^y  tiie  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  I  mean  only  such 
pleasiufg  as  arise  originally  from  sight.'  When  it  is  said, 
'1  mean  only  such  piiasures'  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the 
adverb  cniy  is  not  properly  placed.  It  is  not  intended  here 
to  qiialiiy  the  wov^mean,  biit  such  pleasures  ;  and  therefore 
should  have  been  placed  in  as  close  connexion  as  possible 
with  the  word  \^hich  it  linjits  or  qualifies.  The  style  be- 
comes more  clear  and  neat,  when  the  words  are  arranged 
this:  'l^jy  the  ple.isures  ol  the  imagination,  1  ratan  such 
pleasures  only  as  arise  (Vom  sight.* 

In  the  following  sentence,  the  word  more  is  not  in  its 
pro[»er  phice.  *Thcre  is  not,  perhaps,  any  real  beauty  or 
deformity  m(/,r  io  one  piece  of  matter  than  another.'  The 
phrase  ought  to  have  stood  tliu^j  :  'Heauty  or  deformity  in 
one  piece  of  rnatler  more  than  in  another.' 

2.  In  the  position  of  circumstances^  and  of  particular  inem- 
hers. 

An  author,  in  his  dissertation  on  parties,  thus  expresses 
himself:  *Are  these  designs  which  any  man,  who  is  born  a 
Briton,  in  any  circumstances,  in  any  situation,  ought  to  be 
ashamed  or  afraid  to  avow  ?'  Here  we  are  left  at  a  lo8»> 
vvhell  er  these  words,  4n  any  circumstances,  in  any  situa- 
tion,' are  connected  with  *a  man  born  in  Britain,  in  any  eir- 
cumstanees  or  situation^'  or  with  that  man's  *avovving  his 
designs  il  any  rircumstances  or  situation  into  which  he  may 
be  brought.'  As  il  ifl  probable  that  the  latter  was  intended, 
the  arrangement  ought  to  have  been  conducted  thus  :  *Are 
these  designs  which  any  man,  who  is  born  a  Briton,  ought 
to  be  ashamed  or  afraid,  in  any  situation,  id  any  circumstan- 
ces to  avow  ?' 

The  following  is  another  instance  of  a  wrong  arrange- 
ment of  circumstances.  *A  great  stone  that  1  happened  to 
find,  after  a  long  search,  by  the  sea  shore,  served  me  for  an 
anchor.'  One  would  think  that  the  search  was  confined  to 
the  sea  shore ;  but  as  the  meaning  is,  that  the  great  stone 
Tvas  found  by  the  sea  shore,  the  period  onght  to  have  run 
thus:  'A  great  stone,  that,  after  a  long  search,  I  happened 
to  &nd  by  the  ^&  shmr,  served  me  hv  an  anchor.^ 


Clearness,)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  271 

It  18  a  rule,  too,  never  to  crowd  too  many  circumstances 
together,  but  rather  to  intersperse  them  in  different  parts 
of  the  sentence,  joined  with  the  principal  worcls  on  which 
they  depend.  For  instance:  'What  I  had  the  oppor^ 
tunity  of  mentioning  to  my  friend,  sometime  ago,  in  coa« 
versation,  was  not  a  new  thought.*  These  two  circum- 
stances, '  sometiiiie  ago^  an  ^in  conversation^  which  arc 
here  put  together^  would  have  liad  *^  better  effect  dis- 
joined thus:  'What  I  had  the  opportunity,  sometime  ago, 
of  mentioning  to  my  friend,  in  conversation,  was  not  a  new 
thought.* 

Here  follows  an  example  of  the  wrong  arrangement  of 
a  member  a  of  a  sentence.  '  The  minister  of  state  who 
grows  less  by  his  elevation,  like  a  little  statue  placed  on  a 
mighty  pedestal,  will  always  have  his  jealousy  strong  about, 
him.'  Here,  so  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  the  arrange- 
ment, it  is  doubtful  whether  the  object  introdnced  by  way 
of  similee,  relates  to  what  goes  before,  or  to  what  follous. 
The  ambiguity  is  removed  by  the  following  order.  'The 
minister  of  state  who^  like  a  little  statue  placed  on  a 
mighty  pedestal,  grows  less  by  his  elevation,  will  al- 
ways^* &c. 

Words  expressing  things  connected  in  the  thought,  ought 
to  be  placed  as  near  together  aa  possible,  even  when  their 
separation  would  convey  no  ambiguity.  This  will  be 
s^^en  in  the  following  passages  from  Addison..  'For  the 
English  are  naturally  fanciful,  and  very  often  disposed,  by 
that  gloominess  and  melancholy  of  temper,  which  are  sa 
frequent  in  our  nation,  to  many  wild  notions  and  extrava- 
gancies, to  which  others  are  not  so  liable.'  Here  the  verb 
or  assertion  is,  by  a  pretty  long  circumstance,  separated, 
from  the  subject  to  which  it  refers.  This  might  have  been 
easily  prevented,  by  placing  the  circumstance  before  the 
verb,  thus:  'For  the  English  are  naturally  fanciful,  and 
by  that  gloominess  and  melancholy  of  temper  which  are  so 
frequent  in  our  nation,  are  often  disposed  to  many  wild 
notion^,'  &c. 

'  For  as  no  mortal  author,  in  the  ordinary  fate  and  vi- 
cissitudes of  things  knows  to  what  use  his  works  may 
some  time  or  other,  be  applied,*  &c.  Better  thus;  'For 
sta^  la  the  ordinary  fate  and  vicissitude  of  thingS)  no  bx>;* 


272  APPENDIX.  [a^arness^^. 

ta!  author  knows  to  what  use  sometime  or  other,  his  works 
may  be  ap[)lie(i,'  <Lc. 

From  these  exemples,  the  following  observations  will 
occor :  that  a  circunistauce  ought  never  to  be  phiced  be- 
tween two  capital  members  of  a  period ;  but  either  be- 
tween the  parts  of  the  member  to  which  it  belongs,  or  in 
such  a  manner  as  will  confine  it  to  lis  proper  member* 
When  the  sense  adrrjils  it,  the  sooner  a  circumstance  is 
introduced,  generally  speaking,  the  better,  that  the  more 
important  and  significant  words  may  possess  the  last 
place,  quite  disincumbered.  The  following  sentence  Ib 
in  this  res[>ect,  faulty.  '  The  emperor  was  so  intent  on 
the  establishment  of  his  absolute  power  in  Hungary,  that 
he  exposed  the  empire  doubly  to  desolation  and  ruin 
for  the  sake  of  it.'  Better  thus:  '  That  for  the  sake 
of  it,  he  exposed  the  empire  doubly  to  desolation  and 
ruin.' 

This  appears  to  be  a  proper  place  to  observe,  that  when 
different  things  have  an  obvious  relation  to  each  other,  in 
respect  to  the  order  of  nature  or  time,  that  order  should 
be  regarded,  in  assigning  them  their  places  in  the  s  n- 
tence;  unless  the  scope  of  the  passages  require  it  to  be 
varied.  The  conclusion  of  the  tollowing  lines  is  inaccu- 
rate in  this  respect  :  *  But  still  there  will  be  such  a  mix- 
ture of  delight,  as  is  proportioned  to  the  degree  in  which 
any  one  of  tbese  qualifications  is  most  cons[>icuou8  and 
prevailing.'  The  order  in  which  the  two  last  words  are 
placed,  sliould  have  been  reversed,  and  made  to  stand, /?re- 
vailing  and  conspicuous* — They  are  conspicuous^  because 
they  prevail. 

The  following  sentence  is  a  beautiful  example  of  strict 
conformity  to  this  rule.  *Our  sight  fills  the  mind  with 
the  largest  variety  of  ideas,  converses  with  its  objects  at 
the  greatest  distance,  and  continues  the  longest  in  action, 
without  being  tired  or  satiated  \Nith  its  proper  enjoy- 
ments.' This  passage  follows  the  order  of  nature.  First, 
we  have  the  variety  of  objects  mentioned,  which  sight 
furnishes  to  the  mind  ;  next,  we  have  the  action  of  sight 
on  those  objects ;  and  lastly,  we  have  the  time  and  conlin^ 
uance  of  its  action.  No  order  could  be  more  natural  ot 
e&act» 


Clearness.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c,  273 

The  order  which  we  now  recommend,  is,  in  single  words 
especially,  frequently  violated,  for  the  sake  of  belter  sound; 
but  perhaps  in  no  instances,  without  a  deviation  from  the 
line  of  strict  propriety. 

3.  In  the  disposition  of  the  relative  pronmins,  who,  which, 
what,  whose,  and  of  all  those  particles  which  express  the 
connexion  of  the  parts  of  speech  with  one  another. 

A  small  error  in  the  position  of  these  words  may  cloud 
the  meaning  of  the  whole  seutetice;  and  even  where  the 
meaning  is  intelligible,  we  almays  find  something  awk- 
ward and  disjointed  in  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  when 
these  relatives  are  out  of  their  proper  place.  '  This  kind 
of  wit,'  says  an  author,  Hvas  very  much  in  vogue  among 
our  countrijmen^  about  an  age  or  two  ago ;  who  did 
not  practice  it  for  any  oblique  reason,  but  purely  for  the 
sake  of  being  witty.'  We  are  at  no  loss  about  the  mean- 
ing here;  but  the  construction  would  evidently  be  mend- 
ed by  disposing  the  circumstances,  'about  an  age  or  two 
ago,'  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  separate  the  relative 
who   from   its   antecedent  our  countrymen  ;  in    this   way  : 

*  About  an  age  or  two  ago,  this  kind  of  w^it  was  very 
much  in  vogue  among  our  countrymen,  who  did  not  prac- 
tice it,'  <&:c. 

The  following  pass^e  is  still  more  censurable.  *It  is 
folly  to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of 
life,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  which  nothing  can  protect 
us  against,  but  the  good  providence  of  our  Creator.' 
Which  alwiiys  refers  grammaticrlly  to  the  substantive  im- 
mediately preceding ;  and  that  in  the  instance  just  men- 
tioned, is,  treasures.'  The  sentence  ought  to  have  sto  )d 
thus  :  'It  is  folly  to  j)retend,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  to 
arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life,  which  nothing 
can  protect  us  against,'  &c. 

With  regard  to  relatives,  it  may  be  further  observed, 
that  obscurity  often  arises  from  the  two  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  them,  particularly  of  the  pronouns  who  and  they^ 
and  them  and  theirs,  when  we  have  occasion  to  refer  to  dif- 
ferent persons  ;  as  in  the  following  sentence  of  Tillotson. 

*  Men  look  with  an  evil  eye  upon  the  good  thnt  is  in 
others,  and  think  that  their  reputation  obscures  them,  and 
their   commendable    qualities   stand    in    their    light;  and 


274  APPENDIX.  {Unltx^\ 

therefore  they  do  what  Viet/  can  to  cast  a  clout!  over  them, 
that  the  bright  shining  of  their  virtues  may  not  obscure  tfum,^ 
This  is  altogether  careless  writing.  VVhen  we  find  these 
personal  pronouns  crowding  too  fast  upon  us,  we  have  oftea 
no  method  left,  but  to  throw  the  whole  sentence  into  some 
other  form,  which  may  avoid  those  frequent  references  to 
persons  who  have  before  been  mentioned. 

To  have  the  relation  of  every  word  and  member  of  a  sen- 
tence marked  in  the  most  proper  and  distinct  manner,  not 
onl}^  gives  clearness  to  it,  but  makes  the  mind  pass  smooth- 
ly and  agreeably  along  all  the  parts  of  it. 

CHAPTER  II. 

OF  THE  UNITY  OF  A   6ENTE??CE. 

The  second  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence,  is  its  VnUxj, 

In  every  composition,  there  is  always  some  connecting 
principle  among  the  parts.  Some  one  object  must  reign, 
and  be  predominant.  But  most  of  all,  in  a  single  sentence, 
13  required  the  strictest  unity.  For  the  very  nature  of  a 
sentence  implies  that  one  proposition  is  expreesed.  It  may 
consist  of  parts,  indeed,  but  these  pai(s  must  be  so  closely 
bound  together,  as  to  make  the  impression  upon  the  miiiil  of 
one  object,  not  of  many.  To  preserve  this  unity  of  a  sea- 
teace,  the  following  rults  must  be  observed. 

In  the  first  place.  Dining  the  course  of  the  sentence,  the 
scene  should  he  changed  as  little  eis  possible.  We  should 
not  be  hurried  by  sudden  transitions  irom  person  to  person, 
nor  from  subject  to  subject.  There  is  commonly,  in  every 
sentence,  some  person  or  thing  which  is  the  governing  word. 
This  should  be  continued  so,  if  possible,  from  the  begin- 
iiing  to  the  end  of  it. 

Tiie  following  sentence  varies  from  this  rule  :  'After  we 
came  to  anchor,  they  put  me  on  shore,  where  I  was  wel- 
comed by  all  my  friends,  who  received  me  with  the  greatest 
kindness.'  lu  (iJis  sentence,  though  the  objects  contained 
in  it  have  a  sufficient  connexion  with  each  other,  yer,  by 
this  manner  of  representing  them,  by  sliifting  so  often  both 
the  place  and  the  person,  7vc  and  th^i/,  and  I  and  ivho,  they 
appear  iu  S3  disunited  t  view,  that  the  sense  of  connexioii 
is  much  impaired.       The  sentence  is  restored  to  its  proper 


Uaity.)  PERSPICUITY,  ^c.  2f5 

unity,  by  taming  it  after  the  following  manner.  'Having 
come  to  an  anchor,  1  was  put  on  shore,  where  I  was  wel- 
comed by  all  my  frienils,  and  received  with  the  greatest 
kmdiiess.' 

Here  follovs  another  instance  of  departure  from  the  rule. 
'The  sultan  being  dangerously  wounded,  they  cairied  him 
to  his  tent ;  and  Ujjon  hearmg  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops, 
they  put  him  into  a  litter  which  transported  him  to  a  place 
of  safety,  at  tne  distance  of  about  fifteen  le^igues.'  Better 
thus:  'The  suit,  n  being  dangerously  wounded,  was  carried 
to  his  tent;  and,  on  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  was 
put  into  a  litter,  and  transported  to  a  place  of  safety,  about 
fifteen  leagues  distant.' 

A  sicond  rule  under  the  head  of  unity,  is,  Nner  to  crowd 
into  one  sentence^  thinf^s  which  hav .  so  littlr  coun^xiouj  that 
they  could  hear  to  be  didded  into  two  or  three  stntences* 

The  violation  ^f  this  rule  tends  so  much  to  perplex  and 
obscure,  that  it  is  safer  to  err  by  too  many  short  sentences, 
thaa  by  one  tjiat  is  overloaded  and  embanasaed.  Exam- 
ples abound  in  authors.  ^Archbishop  Tillotson,'  says  an 
author,  *died  in  .this  year^  He  was  exceedingly  beloved  by- 
king  William  and  queen  Mary,  who  nominated  Dr.  Tenni- 
son,  bishop  of  I^incolo,  to  succeed  him.'  Who  would  ex- 
pect the  latter  part  of  this  sentence  to  follow  in  consequence 
of  the  former?  'He  was  exceedingly  beloved  by  both  king 
and  queen,'  is  the  proposition  of  the  sentence.  We  look 
for  some  proof  of  this,  or  at  least  something  related  to  it,  to 
follow ;  when  we  are  on  a  sudden  carried  ofif  to  a  new 
proposition. 

The  following  sentence  is  still  worse.  The  author  speak- 
ing of  the  Greeks  under  Alexander,  says :  'Their  march 
was  through  an  uncultivated  country,  whose  savage  inhab» 
itants  fared  hardly,  having  no  other  riches  than  a  breed  of 
lean  sheep,  whose  flesh  was  rank  and  unsavory,  by  reason 
of  their  continual  feeding  upon  seafish.'  Here  the  scene  is 
changed  upon  us  again  and  again.  The  march  of  the 
Creeks,  the  description  of  the  inhabitants  through  whose 
country  they  travelled,  the  account  of  their  sheep,  and  the 
^ause  of  their  sheep  being  ill  tasted  f^od,  form  a  jumble  of 
objects,  slightly  related  to  each  othefp  which  the  reader 


270  APPENDIX.  {Imty, 

cannot,  wilhout  much  difficulty,  comprehend  under  one 
view. 

These  examples  have  been  taken  from  sentences  of  no 
great  length,  yet  very  crov.ded.  Writers  who  deal  in  long 
sentences,  are  very  apt  to  lie  faulty  in  this  article.  Take, 
for  an  instance,  the  following;  from  Temple.  *The  usual 
acceptation  takes  r.rofit  and  |)leasure  for  two  different  things, 
and  r.ot  only  ca'ls  the  foil  wers  or  votaries  of  them  by  the 
sevf-ral  names  of  busy  and  idle  men;  but  disfmguishes  the 
faculties  of  the  mind,  that  are  conversant  al>out  them,  call- 
ing the  operii!ior»s  of  the  fust,  Wisdom  ;  and  of  the  other, 
Wit ;  w hich  is  r  Saxon  word,  used  to  express  w hat  the  Span- 
iards and  Italians  call  Ingcnio^  and  the  French  Esprit^  loth 
from  the  Latin,  though  I  think  uit  more  particul*  H>  signi- 
fies that  of  poetry,  as  may  occur  in  remarks  on  the  Runic 
language.'  When  the  reader  irrives  a^  the  end  of  tliis  per- 
plexed sentence,  he  is  surprised  to  find  himself  at  so  great 
a  distance  from  the  object  with  which  he  set  out. 

Long  involved,  and  intricate  sentences,  are  great  blem- 
ishes in  composition.  In  writers  of  considtraf^Ie  rorrect- 
ness,  we  find  a  period  sometimes  ruuuiug  out  so  f^^r,  and 
comprehending  so  many  prirticulars,  as  to  le  more  properly 
a  discourse  than  a  sentence.  An  author,  s|  eskifitr  t^f  *he 
progress  of  our  language  after  tlie  time  of  Cromwell,  rura  ott 
in  this  manner:  'To  this  succeeded  tht»t  licentiousness  vvhich 
entered  with  the  restoration,  and,  from  infecting  oi  r  rplig- 
ion  and  morals,  fell  to  corrupt  our  language;  which  last  was 
not  like  to  be  much  improved  by  those  who  at  thht  time 
made  up  the  court  of  king  Charles  tiie  Second  ;  either  such 
88  had  followed  him  in  his  banishment,  or  wlio  had  been  al- 
together conversant  in  the  dialect  of  these  limes,  or  young 
men  who  had  been  educated  in  the  same  country  :  so  that 
the  court,  which  used  to  be  the  standard  of  correctness  arid 
propriety  of  speech,  was  then,  and  I  think  has  ev^r  since 
continued,  the  worst  school  in  England  for  that  acfomplish- 
ment;  and  z}  will  remain,  till  better  care  be  taken  in  the 
education  of  our  nobility,  that  they  may  set  out  iL^>j  the 
world  with  sjaie  foundation  of  literature,  in  otdes  iQ  qualify 
them  for  patterns  of  politeness.* 


Unit^,)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  277 

The  author,  in  place  of  a  sentence,  h?s  here  given  a  loose 
dissertation  upon  several  subjects.  How  many  different 
facts,  reasonings  and  observations,  are  here  presented  to  the 
mind  at  once;  and  yet  so  linked  together  by  the  author, 
that  they  all  make  parts  of  a  sentence  which  admit  of  no 
greater  division  in  pointing,  than  a  colon  between  any  of  its 
members. 

It  may  be  of  use  here  to  give  a  specimen  of  a  long  sen- 
tence, broken  down  into  several  periods,  bj'  which  we  shall 
more  clearly  perceive  the  disadvantages  of  long  sentences, 
and  how  easilj'^  they  may  be  amended.  Here  follows  the 
sentence  in  its  original  form  :  ^Though  in  yesterday's  paper 
we  showed  how  every  thing  that  is  great,  new,  or  beautiful, 
is  apt  to  affect  the  imagination  with  pleasure,  we  must  own, 
that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  assign  the  necessary  cause  of 
this  pleasure,  because  we  know  neither  the  nature  of  an 
idea,  nor  the  substance  of  a  human  soul :  and  therefore,  for 
want  of  such  a  light,  all  that  we  can  do,  in  speculations  of 
this  kind,  is  to  reflect  on  those  operations  of  the  soul  that 
are  most  agreeable  ;  and  to  range,  under  their  proper  heads, 
what  is  pleasing  or  displeasing  to  the  mind,  without  being 
able  to  trace'out  the  several  necessary  and  efficient  causes, 
from  whence  the  pleasure  or  displeasure  arises.' 

The  following  amendment,  besides  breaking  down  the 
period  into  several  sentences,  exhibits  some  other  useful  al- 
terations :  'In  yesterday's  paper,  we  showed  that  every  thing 
which  is  great,  new,  or  beautiful,  is  apt  to  affect  the  imagi- 
nation with  pleasure.  We  must  own,  that  it  is  impossible 
for  us  to  assign  the  efficient  cause  of  this  pleasure,  because 
we  know  not  the  nature  either  of  an  idea,  or  of  the  human 
soul.  All  that  we  can  do,  therefore,  in  speculations  of  this 
kind,  is  to  reflect  on  the  operations  of  the  soul  which  are 
most  agreeable,  and  to  range  under  proper  heads  what  is 
pleasing  or  displeasing  to  the  mind.' 

A  third  rule  for  preserving  the  unity  of  sentences,  is,  to 
keep  clear  of  all  unnecessary  parentheses. 

On  some  occasions,  when  the  sense  is  not  too  long  sus- 
pended by  them,  and  when  they  are  introduced  in  a  proper 
place,  they  may  add  both  to  the  vivacity  and  to  the  energy 
of  the  sentence.  But  for  the  most  part  their  effect  is  ex- 
Z 


278  APPENDIX.  (Strength. 

ireme\y  bad.  They  are  wheels  within  wheels  ;  sentences 
in  tlie  midst  of  sentences;  the  perplexed  method  of  dispos- 
ing; of  some  tliought,  which  a  writer  wants  judgment  to  in- 
troduce in  its  pro()er  place. 

The  parenthesis  in  this  sentence  is  striking  and  proper  : 

'Aiid  was  the  ransom  paid  ?  It  was;  and  paid, 
'(What  can  exalt  the  hoimty  more  ?)  for  thee.' 
But  in   the  following  sentence,  we  become  sensible  of  an 
impropriety  in   the  use  ol   it.       'If  your  hearts  secretly  re- 
pro.K'h  you  for  the  wrong  choice  you  have  made,  (as  there 
is  tniH'  f  »r  repentance  and  retreat  ;  and  a  return  to  wisdom 
is  dwnys  iionorable,)  bethink  yourselves  that  the  evil  is  not 
irrepirahh^'       (t  would  be  much  better  to  express  in  a  sep- 
arate sentf^nce,  the  tlioufrhts  contained  in  this  pjirenihesis; 
t!»ii<;  •    '?r  your  hearts  secretly  reproach  you  for  the  wron^ 
?  have  m«le,  liethink   yourselves  that  the  evil  is 
.ij.;'tf.     Still   tiure   is  time  for  repentance  and  re- 
,  and  a  return  to  wisdom  is  always  honorable.' 

CHAPTER  III. 

OF  THE  STRENG  I  SENTENCE. 

Thk  thikd  requisite  of  a  perfect  smtence,  is  Strc?if^th, 

By  th\»  is  me  tut  such  a  disposition  an<l  management  of 
the  several  words  and  memheis,  as  shall  brina;  out  the  sense 
t(»  the  t>est  advantage,  and  give  every  word,  and  every 
m'  m'/cr,  its  duo  weight  and  force. 

A  sentence  may  be  clear,  it  may  also  be  compact  in  all 
its  p^.rts,  or  have  the  requisite  unity,  and  yet^  by  some  cir- 
cumstJiiice  in  the  structure,  it  may  fail  in  that  strength  of 
im.jressiou,  which  a  better  management  would  have  pro- 
duced. 

The  first  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence, 
is,  to  prune  it  of  all  redundant  words  and  members. 

It  is  a  general  maxim,  that  any  words  which  do  not  add 
sonle  importance  to  the  meaning  of  a  sentence,  always  in- 
jure it.  Ctre  should  therefore  be  exercised  with  respect  to 
synonymous  words,  expletives,  circumlocutions,  tautologies, 
and  the  expression  of  unnecessary  circumstanc  es  The  at- 
teutiou  becomes  remiss,  when  worda  are  multiplied  without 


strength.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  279 

a  correspondent  multiplication  of  ideas.  ^Content  with  de- 
serving a  triumph,  he  refused  the  honor  of  it ;'  is  better  lan- 
guage than  to  say,  *Being  content  with  deserving  it,'  &c. 

*In  the  Attic  commonwealth,'  says  an  author,  4t  was  the 
privilege  and  birthright  of  every  citizen  and  poet,  to  rail 
ah>ud  and  in  public'  Better  simply  thus  :  'In  the  Attic 
commonwealth,  it  was  the  privilege  of  evefy  citizen  to  rail 
in  public' 

Another  expresses  hirasf  If  tlnis  :  'They  returned  back  a- 

;ain  to  the  same  city  from  whence  they  came  forth ;'  in- 
stead of,  ''They  returned  to  the  city  whence  Ihey  came.' — 
The  five  words,  back,  again,  same,  from  and  forth,  are  mere 
expletives,  that  have  neither  use  nor  beauty,  and  are  there- 

bre  to  be  regarded  as  incumbrances. 

The  word  but  is  often  improperly  used  with  that :  as, 
There  can  be  no  doubt  hut  that  he  seriously  means  what  he 
.ays.'  It  is  not  only  Kseless,  but  cumbersome  :  'There  cau 
be  no  doubt  that  he  seriously  means  what  he  says.'  By 
transposing  the  parts  of  the  sentence,  w^e  shall  immediately 
perceive  the  propriety  of  omitting  this  word  :  'That  he  se- 
riously means  what  he  says,  there  can  be  no  doubt.' 

'I  am  honestly,  seriously,  and  unalterably  of  opinion,  that 
nothing  can  possibly  be  more  incurably  and  emphatically 
destructive,  or  more  decisively  fatal,  to  a  kingdom,  than 
the  introduction  of  thoughtless  dissipation,  and  tt^e  pomp  of 
lazy-  luxury.'  Would  not  the  full  import  of  this  noisy  sen- 
tence be  better  expressed  thus  :  'I  am  of  opinion,  that  no- 
thing is  more  ruinous  to  a  kingdom,  than  luxury  and  dissi- 
pation !' 

Some  WTiters  use  much  circumlocution  in  expressing 
their  idens.  A  considerable  one,  for  so  very  simple  a  thing 
as  a  man's  wounding  himself,  says,  'To  mangle,  or  wound, 
his  outward  form  and  constitution,  his  naturcd  l«mbs  or 
body.' 

But  on  some  occasions,  circumlocution  has  a  peculiar 
force ;  as  in  the  following  sentence  :  'Shnll  not  Ihv  Judge  of 
all  the  earth  do  right  ?' 

In  the  sentences  which  follovv',  the  ill  eflects  of  tautolo- 
gy appear. 


28d  APPENDIX.  (Strength, 

SSo  it  is,  that  I  must  be  forced  to  get  home,  partly  by 
stealth,  and  partly  by  force  J' 

'Never  did  Atticus  succeed  better  in  gaining  the  tmiver- 
sal  love  and  esteem  of  all  men.' 

The  subsequent  sentence  contains  several  unnecessary 
circumstances.  *0n  receiving  this  information,  he  arose, 
ivent  out,  saddled  his  horse,  mounted  him,  and  rode  to 
lo^vn.'  All  is  implied  in  saying,  *0n  receiving  this  infor- 
mation he  rode  to  town.' 

This  manner,  however,  in  a  certain  degree,  is  so  strong- 
ly characteristic  of  the  simple  style  of  remote  ages,  that  in 
books  of  the  highest  antiquity,  particularly  the  Bible,  it  is 
not  at  all  ungraceful.  Of  this  kind  are  the  following  scrip- 
tural phi-ases.  'He  lifted  up  his  voice  and  we[)t.'  'He 
.)pened  his  mouth  and  said.'  It  is  true,  that,  in  strictness, 
they  are  not  necessary  to  the  narration ;  but  ihoy  arc  of 
some  importance  to  the  composition,  as  bearing  the  venera- 
ble signature  of  ancient  simplicity.  It  may,  on  this  occa- 
sion, be  further  observed,  that  the  language  of  the  present 
Iranslation  of  the  Bible,  ought  not  to  be  viewed  in  an  ex- 
ceptionable light,  though  some  parts  of  it  may  appear  to  be 
obsolete.  From  universal  admission,  this  language  has  be- 
come so  familiar  and  intelligible,  that  in  all  transcripts  and 
allusions,  except  where  the  sense  is  evidently  injured,  it 
ought  to  be  carefull}^  preserved.  And  it  may  also  be  justly 
remarked,  that,  oi:  religious  subjects,  a  frequent  recurrence 
of  scripture  language  is  attended  with  peculiar  force  and 
propriety. 

Though  it  promotes  the  strength  of  a  sentence,  to  con- 
tract a  round  about  method  of  expression,  and  to  lop  off  ex- 
crescences, yet  we  should  avoid  the  extreme  of  pruning  too 
closely  ;  some  leaves  should  be  left  to  shelter  and  surround 
the  fruit.  Even  synonymous  expressions  may,  on  some  oc- 
casions, be  used  with  propriety.  One  is,  when  an  oL-scure 
terra,  which  we  cannot  well  avoid  employing,  needs  to  be 
explained  by  one  that  is  clearer.  The  oilier  is,  when  the 
language  of  the  emotions  is  exhibited.  Emotion  naturally 
dwells  on  its  object :  and  when  the  reader  also  feels  inter- 
ested, repetition  and  svnonymv  have  frequently  an  agreea- 
ble effect. 


Strength.)  PtLk^lCVVTYM'  2di 

The  following  passage  taken  from  Addison,  wlio  delight- 
ed in  a  full  and  flowing  style,  maj^  by  some  persons,  be 
deemed  not  very  exceptionable.  'But  there  is  nothing  that 
makes  its  way  more  directly  to  the  soul  than  beauty,  which 
immediately  diifuses  a  secret  satisfaction  and  complacency 
through  the  inidgination,  and  gives  a  finishing  to  any  thing 
that  is  great  or  uncommon.  The  very  first  discovery  of  it 
strikes  the  mind  with  inward  joy,  and  spreads  a  cheerfulness 
and  delight  through  all  its  faculties.'  Some  degree  of  ver-= 
bosily  may  be  discovered  in  these  sentences,  as  phrases  are 
repeated  whicl^  seem  little  more  than  the  echo  of  one  ano- 
ther: such  as — diffusing;  salisfactiGii  and  tomplacency  through 
the  imaginaiicn' — striking  the  mind  rvith  inward joii — spread- 
ing cheerfulness  and  delight  through  all  its  faculties.  But 
perhaps  some  redundancy^  is  more  allowable  on  such  lively 
subjects,  than  it  would  be  on  other  occasions. 

After  removing  siipernuities,  the  second  rule  for  promoting 
the  strength  of  a  senteiice,  is,  ta  attend  particnlarly  to  the 
use  ef  copulatives^  relaiives^  and  all  the  particles  employed  for 
transition  and  connexion. 

These  little  words,  lid^  and^  or.  jvhich^  whose,  where,  theUy 
the r fore,  because ^  d^c.  are  frequently  the  most  important 
words  of  any;  they  are  the  joints  or  hinges  u[)on  which  all 
sentences  turn  ;  and  of  course,  much  of  their  strength  must 
depend  upon  such  particles.  Toe  varieties  in  using  them 
are,  indeed,  so  man}^  that  no  particular  system  of  rules  res- 
pecting them  can  be  given.  Some  observations,  tending 
to  illustrate  the  rule,  may,  however,  be  mentioned. 

What  is  called  splitting  particles,  or  separating  a  prepo- 
sition from  the  noun  w  hich  it  governs,  is  to  be  avoided* 
As  if  I  should  say,  'Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance 
from,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages 
of  fortune.'  Here  we  are  put  to  a  stand  in  thought,  being 
obliged  to  rest  a  little  on  the  preposition  by  itself,  which  at 
the  same  time  carries  no  significancyj  till  it  is  joined  to  its 
proper  substantive. 

Some  writers  needless!}^  multiply  demonstrative  and  rel« 
ative  particles,  by  the  frequent  use  of  such  phraseology  as 
this  I  'There  is  nothing  w  hich  disgusts  us  sooner  than  th« 
z2 


282  APPENDIX.  (Strengih. 

•empty  pomp  of  language.'  In  introducing  a  subject,  or 
ilaying  down  a  proposition,  to  which  we  demand  particular 
attention,  this  sort  of  style  is  very  proper ;  but,  on  common 
occasions,  it  is  better  to  express  ourselves  more  simply  and 
briefly  :  'Nothing  disgusts  us  sooner  than  the  empty  pomp 
of  language.' 

Other  writers  make  a  practice  of  omitting  tfie  relative, 
i\'here  they  think  tfie  meaning  can  l^e  understood  without 
it:  as,  *The  man  I  love;'  'The  dominions  we  possessed, 
and  the  conquests  we  made.'  But  though  this  elliptical 
style  is  intelligible,  and  is  allowable  hi  conversation  and 
epistolary  writing,  yet  in  all  writings  of  a  serious  and  digni- 
fied kind,  it  ought  to  be  avoided.  There,  the  relative 
should  always  be  inserted  in  its  proper  place,  and  the  con- 
struction filled  up.  'The  man  whom  I  love.'  'The  do- 
minions which  we  possessed,  and  the  conquests  which  we 
made.' 

With  regard  to  the  copulative  particle  and,  which  occurs 
so  frequently  in  all  kinds  of  composition,  several  observa- 
tions are  to  be  made.  First,  it  is  evident,  that  the  unne- 
cessary repetion  of  it  enfeebles  style.  The  following  sen- 
tence from  Sir  William  Temple,  will  serve  for  an  instance. 
He  is  speaking  of  the  refinement  of  ihe  French  language  : 
"The  academy,  set  up  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  to  amuse  the 
wits  of  that  age  am/ country,  and  divert  them  from  raking 
into  his  politics  and  ministry,  brought  this  into  vogue ;  and 
the  French  wits  have  for  this  last  age,  been  wholly  turned 
to  the  ref^.nement  of  their  style  and  language;  and,  indeed, 
with  such  success,  that  it  can  hardly  be  equalled,  and  runs 
equally  through  their  verse  and  their  [)rose.'  Here  are  no 
fewer  than  eight  ands  m  one  sentence.  Some  writers  often 
make  their  sentences  drag  in  this  manner,  by  a  careless 
multiplication  of  copulatives. 

But,  in  tiie  next  place,  it  is  worthy  of  observation,  that 
though  the  natural  use  of  the  conjunction  a/i^/,  is  to  join 
objects  together,  yet  in  fact,  by  dropping  the  conjunction, 
we  often  mark  a  closer  connexion,  a  quicker  succession  of 
objects,  than  when  it  is  inserted  between  them.  '1  came, 
I  saw,  I  conquered,'  expresses  with  more  force  the  rapidity 
and  quick  succession  of  conquest,  than  if  connecting  parti- 
ciples had  been  used* 


Strength.)  PERSPICUITY,  &cv  283 

On  tlie  other  band,  when  we  seek  to  prevent  a  quick 
transition  from  on(:  object  to  another,  when  we  are  making 
some  enumeration,  in  which  we  wish  that  the  ohjects  should 
a}>pear  as  distinct  rroni  each  other  as  possible,  and  that  the 
mind  should  rest  i'or  a  moment,  on  each  olyect  by  itself, 
copulatives  may  be  multiplied  with  peculiar  advantage.  As 
when  an  author  says,  'Such  a  man  might  fall  a  victim  to 
power;  l)ut  truth,  and  reason,  and  liberty,  would  fall  with 
him.'  Observe  in  the  following  enumeration  made  by  the 
apostle  Paul,  what^  additional  weight  and  distinctness  are 
given  to  each  particular,  by  the  repetition  of  a  conjunction  ; 
'1  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor 
principalities,  nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor  things  to 
come,  nor  height,  nor  de[)th,  nor  any  other  creature,  shall 
be  able  to  separate  us  from  the  love  of  God.' 

The  words  designed  to  mark  the  transition  from  one  sen- 
tence to  another,  and  the  connexion  between  sentences,  are 
sometimes  very  incorrect,  and  perform  their  office  in  an 
imperfect  and  obscure  manner.  The  following  is  an  ex- 
ample of  this  kind  of  inaccuracy.  *By  greatness,  I  do  not 
mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object  only,  but  the  largeness 
of  a  whole  view.  Such  are  the  prospects  of  an  open  cham- 
paign country,  a  vast  uncultivated  desert,'  &c.  The  word 
such  signifies  of  that  nature  or  quality,  which  necessarily 
pre-supposes  some  adjective  or  word  descriptive  of  a  quality 
going  beforejKto  which  it  refers.  But,  in  the  foregoing  sen- 
tence, there  is  no  such  adjective.  The  author  had  spoken 
of  i^reatness  in  the  abstract  only;  and,  therefore,  such  has 
no  distinct  antecedent  to  which  we  can  refer  it.  The  sen- 
tence would  have  been  introduced  with  more  propriety,  by 
saying.  To  this  class  belong,  or,  Under  this  head  are  rangedy 
the  prospects,  &:c. 

As  connective  particles  are  the  hinges,  tacks,  and  pins, 
by  which  the  words  in  the  same  clause,  the  clauses  in  the 
sfirae  member,  the  members  in  the  same  sentence,  and  even 
the  sentences  in  the  same  discourse,  are  united  together, 
and  their  relations  suggested,  so  they  should  not  be  either 
too  frequently  repeated,  aukwardly  ex[)osed  to  view,  or 
made  up  of  polysyllables,  when  shorter  words  would  as  well 
convey  our  meaning.    Notwithstanding  ihat^  insomuch  that, 


284  APPEx\DIX. 


l>iri!iL'in 


forasmuch  as,  furthermore^  Sec.   are  tedious  words,  ^\]:lch 
tend  to  overload  and  perplex  a  sentence. 

We  shall  conclude  this  head  with  two  remarks  on  ti»e 
subject  of  inserting  or  omitting  the  conjunctions.  The 
first  is,  that  the  illative  conjunctions,  the  casual  and  th« 
disjunctive,  when  they  suit  the  sense;  can  more  rarely  be 
dispensed  with  than  the  coj>ulative.  The  second  is,  that 
the  omission  of  coj)u!ative^  always  succeeds  hest,  when  (he 
connexion  of  the  thoughts  is  either  very  close,  or  very  (i;3« 
tant.  It  is  mostly  in  the  intermediate  cases  that  the  con- 
junction is  deemed  necessary.  Wheti  the  connexion  in 
thought  is  very  distant,  the  co])ulalive  appears  absurd  ;  and 
when  very  close,  superfluous. 

The  (hird  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence, 
is,  to  dispose  of  the  capital  word,  or  words,  so  that  they  may 
make  the  greatest  impression. 

That  there  are,  in  every  sentence,  sucli  capital  words  on 
which  the  meaning  principally  rests,  every  one  must  see; 
and  that  these  words  should  possess  a  conspicuous  and  dis- 
tinguished place,  is  equally  plain.  For  the  most  part,  Avith 
us,  the  important  wonis  are  placed  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sentence.  So  in  the  following  passages  :  'Silver  and  gold 
have  1  none;  but  such  as  1  have,  give  I  unto  thee,'  6l<*,. 
'Your  fathers,  where  are  they  ?  and  the  prophets,  do  they 
live  forever  T 

Sometimes,  however,  when  we  intend  to  give  weight  to  a 
sentence,  it  is  of  advantage  to  suspend  the  meaning  for  a 
little,  and  then  bring  it  out  full  at  the  close.  'Thus,'  says 
an  author,  'on  whatever  side  we  contemplate  this  ancient 
writer,  what  principally  strikes  us,  is  his  wonderful  inven- 
tion.' 

To  accomplish  this  end,  the  placing  of  capital  words  in  a 
conspicuous  part  of  the  sentence,  the  natural  order  of  our 
language  must  sometimes  be  inverted.  According  to  this 
natural  order,  the  nominative  has  the  first  place,  the  verb 
the  second,  and  the  objective,  if  it  be  an  active  verb  that  is 
employed,  has  the  third.  Circumstances  follow  the  nomi- 
native, the  verb  or  the  objective,  as  they  happen  to  t^elong 
to  any  of  them.     'Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great,'  is  the 


Strength.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  285 

natural  order  of  the  sentence.  But  its  strength  is  increas- 
ed by  inversion,  thus  :  *Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians.' 
*I  profess  in  the  sincerity  of  my  heart,'  &:c.  is  the  natural  or- 
der of  a  circumstance.  Inverted  thus  :  *In  the  sincerity  of 
my  heart,  I  profess,'  &zc. 

Some  authors  greatly  invert  the  natural  order  of  senten- 
ces ;  others  write  mostly  in  a  natural  style.  Each  method 
has  its  advantages.  The  inverted  possesses  strength,  dig- 
nity, and  variety  :  the  other,  more  nature,  ease,  and  simpli- 
city. We  shall  give  an  instance  of  each  method,  taken 
from  writers  of  considerable  eminence.  The  tirst  is  of  the 
inverted  order.  The  author  is  speaking  of  the  misery  of 
vice.  'This,  as  to  the  complete  immoral  state,  is,  what  of 
their  own  accord,  men  readily  remark.  Where  there  is 
this  absolute  degeneracy,  this  total  apostacy  from  all  can- 
dor, truth,  or  equity,  there  are  few  who  do  not  see  and  ac- 
knowledge the  misery  w^hich  is  consequent.  Seldom  is  the 
case  misconstrued  when  at  worst.  The  misfortune  is,  that 
we  look  not  on  this  depravity,  nor  consider  how  it  stands  in 
less  degrees.  As  if,  to  be  absolutely  immoral,  were,  indeed, 
the  greatest  misery ;  but  to  be  so  in  a  little  degree,  should 
be  no  misery  or  harm  at  all.  Which,  to  allow,  is  just  as 
reasonable  as  to  own,  that  it  is  the  greatest  ill  of  a  body  to 
be  in  the  utmost  manner  maimed  or  distorted ;  but  that  to 
lose  the  use  only  of  one  limb,  or  to  be  impaired  in  some  sin- 
gle organ  or  member,  is  no  ill  worthy  the  least  notice.' — 
Piere  is  no  violence  done  to  the  language,  though  there  are 
many  inversions. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  natural  construction  : — 
*Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect,  and  the  most  delightful,  of  all 
our  senses.  It  fills  the  mind  with  the  largest  variety  of 
ideas,  converses  with  its  objects  at  the  greatest  distance, 
and  continues  the  longest  in  action,  without  being  tired,  or 
satiated  with  its  proper  enjoyments.  The  sense  of  feeling 
can,  indeed,  give  us  a  notion  of  extension,  shape,  and  all 
other  idetts  that  enter  at  the  eye,  except  colors  ;  but,  at  the 
same  time,  it  is  very  much  straightened  and  confined  in  its 
operations 5'  Ac, 

But  whether  we  use  inversion  or  not,  and  in  whatever 
part  of  the  sentence  we  dispose  of  the  capital  words,  it  is 


2a6  APPENDIX.  {Slrcngth. 

Iways  a  point  of  consequence,  that  these  capital  words 
shoiiltl  stand  clear  and  (iisentangled  from  any  other  words 
that  wouhl  clog  them.  Thus,  when  there  are  any  circum- 
stances dF  time,  place,  or  other  limitations,  which  the  prin- 
cipal object  of  our  sentence  requires  to  have  connected  with 
it,  we  must  take  care  to  dispose  of  them,  so  as  not  to  cloud 
that  principal  object,  nor  to  bury  it  under  a  load  of  circum- 
stances. This  will  he  made  clearer  by  an  example.  ^U, 
whilst  they  profess  only  to  please,  they  secretly  advise,  and 
give  instruction,  they  may  now,  perhaps,  as  well  as  former- 
ly, be  esteemed,  with  justice,  the  best  and  most  honorable 
among  authors.'  This  is  a  well  constructed  sentence.  It 
contains  a  great  many  circumstances  anrl  adverbs  necessa- 
ry to  qualify  the  meaning;  onli/,  sccretlt/,  as  7vell^ pcrhfips, 
now,  iiiih  justice,  formerly  ;  yet  these  are  placed  so  proper- 
ly, as  neither  to  embarrass,  nor  weaken  the  sentence ;  while 
that  which  is  the  capital  object  in  it,  viz.  'being  justly  es- 
teemed the  best  and  most  honorable  among  authors,'  comes 
out  in  the  conclusion  clear  and  detached,  and  possesses  its 
proi>er  place.  See,  now,  what  would  have  been  the  effect 
of  a  ditferent  arrangement :  'If,  wliilst  they  profess  to  please 
only,  they  advise  and  giv^e  instruction  secretly,  they  may  be 
esteemed  the  best  and  most  honorable  among  authors,  with 
justice,  perhaps,  now,  as  well  as  formerly.'  Here  we  have 
precisely  the  same  words,  and  the  same  sense  ;  but  by  means 
of  the  circumstances  being  so  intermingled  as  to  clog  the 
capital  words,  the  whole  becomes  feeble  and  perplexed. 

l^\\e,  fourth  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  sentences, 
is,  that  a  weaker  assertion  or  proposition  should  never  conie 
after  a  stronger  one  :  and  that,  when  our  sentence  consists  of 
two  member^,  the  longer  should  generally  be  the  concluding 
one. 

Thus,  to  say,  *When  our  passions  have  forsaken  us,  we 
flatter  ourselves  wiih  the  belief  that  we  have  forsaken 
them,'  is  both  more  easy  and  more  clear,  than  to  begin  with 
the  longer  part  of  the  proposition:  'We  flatter  ourselves 
with  the  belief  that  we  have  forsaken  our  passions,  when 
they  have  for3ik*»n  us.' 

In  general  it  is  agreeable  to  tind  a  sentence  rising  upon 
us.  and  'j:rowing  m  as   importance,  to  the  very  last  word. 


Strengih.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  287 

when  this  construction  can  be  managed  without  affectation. 
*If  we  rise  yet  higher,'  says  Addison,  'and  consider  the  fix- 
ed stars  as  so  many  oceans  of  t!ame,  that  are  each  of  them 
attended  with  a  dilferent  set  of  planets  ;  and  still  discover 
new  firmaments  and  new  lights,  that  are  sunk  further  in 
those  unfathomable  depths  of  etner ;  we  are  lost  in  such  a 
labyrinth  of  suns  and  worlds,  and  confounded  with  the  mag- 
nificence and  immensity  of  nature.' 

The  fifth  rule  for  the  strength  of  sentences  is,  to  avoid 
concluding  them  with  an  adverb^  a  prepobition,  or  any  incon- 
siderabh  word. 

Agreeably  to  this  rule,  we  should  not  conclude  with  any 
of  the  particles,  of,  to.  from,  with,  by.  For  instance,  it 
16  a  great  deal  better  to  say,  'Avarice  is  a  crime  of  which 
wise  men  are  often  guilty,'  than  to  say,  'Avarice  is  a  crime 
which  wise  men  are  often  guilty  of,'  This  is  a  phraseolgy 
which  all  correct  writers  shun;  and  with  reason.  For  as 
the  mind  cannot  help  resting  a  little,  on  the  imporf  of  the 
word  which  closes  the  sentence,  it  must  be  disagreeable  to 
be  left  pausing  on  a  word,  which  does  not,  by  itself,  pro- 
duce any  idea. 

For  the  same  reason,  verbs  which  are  used  in  a  compound 
sense,  with  some  of  these  prepositions,  are,  though  not  so 
bad,  yet  still  not  proper  conclusions  of  a  period :  such  as, 
bring  about,  lay  hold  of,  come  over  to.  char  up,  and  many 
other  of  this  kind;  instead  of  which,  if  we  can  employ  a 
simple  verb,  it  always  terminates  the  sentence  with  more 
strength.  Even  the  pronoun  it  should  if  possible  be  avoid- 
ed in  the  conclusion  :  especially  when  it  is  joined  with  some 
of  the  prepositions;  as,  with  it,  in  it,  to  it.  We  shall  be 
sensible  of  this  rule  in  the  following  sentence.  'There  is 
nots  in  my  opinion,  a  more  pleasing  and  triumphant  consid- 
eration in  religion,  than  this,  of  the  perpetual  progress  which 
the  soul  makes  towards  the  perfection  of  its  nature,  without 
ever  arriving  at  a  period  in  it,^  How  riiuch  more  agreecble 
the  sentence,  if  it  had  been  so  constructed  as  to  close  with 
the  word  period ! 

Besides  particles  and  pronouns,  any  phrase  which  ex- 
presses a  circumstance  only,  always  appears  badly  in  the 
rear  of  a  sentence.    We  may  judge  of  this  by  the  following 


288  APPENDIX.  {Strength. 

passage:  *Let  me  therefore  conclude  by  repeatino:,  that  di- 
vision has  caused  all  the  mischief  we  lament ;  that  union 
alone  can  retrieve  it ;  and  that  a  sreat  advance  towards  this 
union,  was  the  coalition  of  parties,  so  happily  begun,  so 
successfully  carried  on,  and  of  late  so  unaccountably  nrg- 
lected;  to  say  no  worse.'  This  last  phrase,  'to  say 
110  worse,'  occasions  a  falling  off  at  the  end.  The  prop- 
er disposition  of  such  circumstances  in  a  sentence,  re- 
quires attention,  in  order  to  adjust  them  so  as  shall  con- 
sist equally  with  the  perspicuity  and  the  strenglh  of  the 
period.  Though  necessary  parts,  they  are,  however,  like 
irregular  stones  in  a  building,  which  try  the  skill  of  an 
artist,  where  to  place  them  with  the  least  offence.  But  it 
must  be  remembered,  that  the  close  is  always  an  unsuitable 
place  for  them.  Notwithstanding  what  has  been  said  a- 
gainst  concluding  a  period  with  an  adverb,  &c.  this  must 
not  be  understood  to  refer  to  such  words,  when  the  stress 
and  signilicancy  of  the  sentence  rests  chiefly  upon  them. 
In  this  case  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  circumstances, 
but  as  the  principal  objects;  as  in  the  following  sentence  : 
*In  their  prosperity,  my  friends  shall  never  hear  of  me;  in 
their  adversitjs  always.'  Here,  'tmer*  and  'always*  being 
emphatical  words,  were  to  be  so  placed  as  to  make  a  strong 
impression. 

The  sixth  rule  relating  to  the  strength  of  a  sentence,  is, 
ihat,  in  the  member  of  a  sentence,  nhcre  iivo  things  are  com- 
pared or  contrasted  ivith  one  another  ;  where  either  a  resem- 
blance or  an  opposition  is  intended  to  he  expressed :  some  re- 
semblance, in  the  lein8:nage  and  construction,  should  he  preser- 
ved. For  when  the  tliinss  themselves  correspond  to  each  ether, 
7ve  naturally  expect  to  jind  a  similar  eorrespondmce  in  the 
words. 

Thus,  when  it  is  said,  *The  wise  man  is  happy  when  he 
gains  his  own  approbation  ;  the  fool,  when  he  recommends 
himself  to  the  applause  of  those  about  him  ;'  (he  opposition 
"would  have  been  more  complete,  if  it  had  been  expressed 
thus :  'The  wise  man  is  happy  when  he  gains  his  o\Nn  ap- 
probation ;  the  fool,  when  he  gains  that  of  others.' 

*A  friend  exaggerates  a  man's  virtues :  an  enemy  inflames 


Strength.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  289 

his  crimes.'  Better  thus  :  *A  friend  exaggerates  a  man's 
virtiif's  ;  an  enemy,  his  crimes.' 

The  following  passage  from  Pope's  Preface  to  his  Ho- 
mer, fully  exemplities  the  rule  just  given  :  'Homer  was  the 
greater  genius;  Virgil,  the  hetter  artist:  in  the  one,  we 
most  admire  the  man  ;  in  the  other,  the  work.  Homer  hur- 
ries us  with  a  commanding  impetuosity;  Virgil  leads  us 
with  an  attractive  majesty.  Homer  scatters  with  a  gene- 
rous profusion  ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful  magnificence. 
Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches  with  a  sudden 
overflow ;  Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its  banks,  with  a  constant 

stream.' Periods  thus  constructed,  when  introduced  with 

propriety,  and  not  returning  too  often,  have  a  sensible  beau- 
ty. But  we  must  beware  of  carrying  our  attention  to  this 
beauty  too  far.  It  ought  only  to  be  occasionally  studied, 
when  comparison  or  opjosition  of  objects  naturally  leads  to 
it.  If  such  a  construction  as  this  be  aimed  at,  in  nil  our 
sentences,  it  leads  to  a  disagreeable  uniformity  ;  produces  a 
regularly  returning  clink  in  the  period,  which  tires  the  ear, 
and  plainly  discovers  affectation. 

The  Seventh  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  and  effect  of 
sentences,  is,  to  attend  to  the  aoiind,  the  harmony ,  and  easy 
flow  of  the  words  and  7nembers, 

Sound  is  a  quality  much  inferior  to  sense;  yet  such  as 
must  not  be  disregarded.  For,  as  long  as  sounds  are  the 
vekicle  or  conveyance  for  our  ideas,  there  will  be  a  very 
considerable  connexion  between  the  idea  which  is  convey- 
ed, and  the  nature  of  the  sound  which  conveys  it.  Pleas- 
ing ideas  and  forcible  reasoning  can  hardly  be  transmitted 
to  the  mind,  by  means  of  harsh  and  disagreeable  sounds. 
The  mind  revolts  at  such  sounds,  and  the  impression  of  the 
sentiment  must  consequently  be  weakened.  The  observa- 
tions, which  we  have  to  make  on  this  subject,  respect  the 
choice  of  words ;  their  arrangement ;  the  order  and  dispo- 
sition of  the  members,  and  the  cadence  or  close  of  senten- 
ces. 

We  begin  with  the  choice  of  words.  It  is  evident,  that 
words  are  most  agreeable  to  the  ear,  when  they  are  compos- 
ed of  smooth  and  liquid  sounds,  in  which  there  is  a  proper 
intermixture  of  vowels  and  consonants;  without  too  many 
A  a 


290  APPENDIX.     .     .  {Strength, 

harsh  consonants  nibbing  against  each  other;  or  too  many- 
open  vowels  in  succession^,  to  cause  a  liiatus,  or  disagreea- 
ble aperture  of  the  mouth. 

It  may  always  be  assumed  as  a  principle,  that  whatever 
sounds  are  difTicuit  in  pronunciation,  are,  in  the  same  pro- 
portion, liarsh  and  |>ain('u!  to  the  ear.  Vowls  give  softness  ; 
consonants,  strength  to  the  sound  of  words.  The  melody 
of  language  requires  a  just  proportion  of  each  ;  and  the  con- 
struction will  be  hurt,  will  be  rendered  either  grating  or  ef- 
feminate, by  an  excess  of  either.  Long  words  are  com- 
nrionly  more  agreeable  to  the  ear  than  monosyllables.  They 
please  it  by  the  composition  or  succession  of  sounds  which 
they  present  to  it ;  and  accordingly,  the  most  harmonious 
languages  abound  most  in  them.  Among  words  of  any 
length,  those  are  the  most  melodious,  which  do  not  run 
wholly  either  upon  long  or  short  syllables,  but  are  compos- 
ed of  an  intermixture  of  them;  such  as,  repent,  profess,  pow- 
erful, velocity,  celerity,  independent,  impetuosUy, 

If  we  would  speak  forcibly  and  effectually,  we  must  avoid 
the  use  of  such  words  as  the  following  :  1.  Such  as  are  com- 
posed of  words  already  compounded,  the  several  parts  of 
which  are  not  easily,  and  therefore  not  closely  united  :  as, 
'Vnsuccessfulness,  wrongheadedness^  tenderheartedness  C  2. 
Huch  as  have  the  syllables,  which  immediately  follow  the 
accented  syllable,  crowded  with  consonants,  that  do  not  ea- 
sily coalesce  :  as,  "-QMestionless,  chroniclers,  conventiclers  ." 
3.  Such  as  have  too  many  syllables  following  the  accented 
syllable  :  as,  ^Primarily,  cursorily,,  summarily,  pcremptori* 
ness i*  4.  Such  as  have  a  short  or  unaccented  syllable  re- 
peated, or  followed  by  another  short  or  unaccented  syllable 
very  much  resembling :  as,  'Holily,  sillily,  lowlily,  farriery.' 
A  little  harshness,  by  the  collision  of  consonants,  which  ne- 
vertheless our  organs  find  no  difficulty  in  articulating,  and 
which  do  not  suggest  to  the  hearer  the  disagreeable  idea  ei- 
ther of  precipitation  or  of  stammering,  is  by  no  means  a  suf- 
ficient reason  for  suppressing  a  useful  terra.  The  words 
hedged,  Jledg'd,  wedg'^d,  drudg'd,  grtidg^d^  adjudged,  which 
some  have  thought  very  offensive,  are  not  exposed  to  the 
objections  which  lie  against  the  words  above  mentioned. — 
We  should  not  do  well  to  introduce  fiuch  hard  and  strong 


f:^frc}igth.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  291 

sounds  too  frequentlj" ;  but  \\'hen  they  are  used  sparingly 
and  properl}^  they  have  even  a  good  etTect.  They  con- 
tribute to  that  variety  in  sound  which  is  advantageous  to 
language. 

The  next  head,  respecting  the  harmony  which  results 
from  a  proper  arrangement  of  words,  is  a  point  of  greater 
rslcety.  For,  let  the  words  themselves  be  ever  so  well  cho- 
sen, and  well  sounding,*  yet,  if  they  be  ill  disposed,  the 
melody  of  the  sentence  is  utterly  lost,  or  greatly  impaired. 
That  this  is  the  case,  the  learners  will  perceive  by  the  fol- 
lowing examples.  ^Pleasures  simple  and  moderate  always 
are  the  best :'  it  would  be  better  to  say,  'Simple  and  mode- 
rate pleasures  are  always  the  best.'  *Oflice  or  rank  may 
be  the  recompense  of  intrigue,  versatility,  or  flattery:'  better 
tlius ;  'Rank  or  office  may  be  the  recompence  of  flattery, 
versatility,  or  intrigue.'  'A  great  recommendation  of  the 
guidance  offered  by  integrity  to  us,  is,  that  it  is  by  all  men 
easily  understood :'  better  in  this  form ;  'It  is  a  great  re- 
commendation of  the  guidance  offered  to  us  by  integrity, 
that  it  is  easily  understood  by  all  men.'  In  the  following 
examples,  the  words  are  neither  selected  nor  arranged,  so  as 
to  orodLice  the  most  agreeable  effect.  'If  we  make  the  best 
of  our  life,  it  is  but  as  a  pilgrimage,  with  dangers  s'J?70Und- 
ing  it :'  better  thus;  'Our  life,  at  the  best,  is  a  pilgrimage, 
and  dangers  surround  it.'  'We  see  that  we  are  encumbered 
with  difficulties,  which  we  cannot  prevent :'  better,  'We 
perceive  ourselves  involved  in  difficulties  that  cannot  be  a- 
voided.'  'It  is  plain  to  any  one  who  views  the  subject, 
even  slightly,  that  there  is  nothing  here  that  is  without  al- 
lay and  pure  ;'  im[)roved  by  this  form  ;  'it  is  evident  to  the 
slightest  inspection:,  that  nothing  here  is  unallayed  and 
pure.' 

We  may  take,  for  an  instance  of  a  sentence  remarkably 
harmonious,  the  following  from  Milton's  Treatise  on  Educa- 
tion :  'We  shall  conduct  you  to  a  hill-side,  laborious  indeed, 
at  the  first  ascent ;  but  else  so  smooth,  so  green,  so  full  of 
goodly  prospects,  and  melodious  sounds  on  every  side,  that 
the  harp  of  Orpheus  was  not  more  charming.'  Every  thing 
In  this  sentence  cons[)ires  to  promote  the  harmony.  The 
words  are  well  chosen  ;  full  of  liquids;  and  soft  sounds  \  la- 


292  APPENDIX.  {Strength. 

horiou,%  smooth.,  green.,  goodly.,  melodious y  charming  ;  and 
these  words  so  artfully  arranged,  that,  were  we  to  alter  the 
situation  of  any  one  of  them,  we  should,  presently,  be  sensi- 
ble of  the  melody's  suffering. 

To  promote  this  harmonious  arrangement  of  words,  the 
following  general  directions  will  be  found  of  some  use.  1st. 
When  the  preceding  word  ends  with  a  vowel,  let  the  subse- 
quent one  begin  with  a  consonant ;  and  vice  versa.  A  true 
friend,  a  cruel  enemy.,  are  smoother  anc!  easier  to  the  voice, 
than  a  true  union.,  a  cruel  destroyer.  But  when  it  is  more 
perspicuous  or  convenient,  for  vowels  or  consonants  to  end 
one  word  and  begin  the  next,  it  is  proper  that  the  vowels 
be  a  long  and  short  one  ;  and  that  the  consonants  be  either 
a  liquid  and  a  mute,  or  liquids  of  different  sorts  :  thus,  a 
lovely  offapritig  ;  a  purer  design  ;  a  calm  retreat  ;  are  more 
fluent,  than,  a  happy  union  ;  a  brief  petition  ;  a  cheap  tri- 
umph ;  a  puind  distenrper  ;  a  calm  nmtron  ;  a  clean  nurse, 
VFrom  these  exam[)les,  the  student  will  perceive  the  import- 
ance of  accurately  understanding  the  nature  of  vowels  and 
consonants,  liquids  and  mutes;  with  the  connexion  and  in- 
fluence which  subsist  amongst  them.  2d.  In  general,  a 
considerable  number  of  long  or  short  words  near  one  ano- 
ther should  be  avoided.  ^Disappointment  in  our  expecta- 
tiona  is  wretchedness:'  better  thus;  'Disappointed  hope  is 
misery.'  *No  course  of  joy  can  please  us  long:'  better, 
'No  course  of  enjoyment  can  delight  us  long.'  A  succes- 
sion of  words  having  the  same  quantity  in  the  accented 
syllables,  whether  it  be  long  or  short,  should  also  be  avoid- 
ed. 'James  was  needy,  feeble,  and  fearful :'  improved  thus, 
*James  was  timid,  feeble,  and  destitute.'  'They  could  not 
be  happy ;  for  he  was  silly,  pettish,  and  sullen  :'  better 
thus  ;  'They  could  not  be  happy;  for  he  was  simple,  peev- 
ish and  gloomy.'  3d.  Words  which  begin  alike,  or  end 
alike,  must  not  come  together;  and  the  last  syllable  of  the 
preceding  words,  should  not  be  the  same  as  the  first  syllable 
of  the  subsequent  one.  It  is  not  so  pleasing  and  harmoni- 
ous to  say,  'This  is  a  convenient  contrivance;'  'He  is  an 
indulgent  parent  ;'  'She  behaves  with  uniform  formality  ;' 
as,  'This  is  a  useful  contrivance  ;'  'He  is  a  kind  parent  j' 
'She  behaves  with  unvaried  formality.' 


Strength,)  PERSPICUITY,  ^c.  293 

We  proceed  (o  consider  the  members  of  a  sentence,  with 
regard  to  harmony.  They  should  not  be  too  long,  nor  dis- 
proportionate to  each  other.  When  they  have  a  regular 
and  proportional  division,  they  are  much  easier  to  (he  voice, 
are  more  clearly  understood,  and  better  remembered,  than 
Tvhen  this  rule  is  not  attended  to  :  for  whatever  tires  the 
voice,  andoifends  the  ear,  is  apt  to  mar  the  strength  of  the 
expression,  and  to  degrade  the  sense  of  the  author.  And 
this  is  a  suflTicient  ground  for  paying  attention  to  the  order 
and  proportion  of  sentences,  and  the  different  parts  of 
which  they  consist.  The  following  passage  exhibits  sen- 
tences in  which  the  different  members  are  proportionally 
arranged. 

Temple,  speaking  sarcastically  of  man,  says  :  'But  his 
pride  is  greater  than  his  ignorance,  and  what  he  wants  in 
knowledge  he  supplies  by  sufficiency.  When  he  has  look- 
ed about  him  as  far  as  he  can^  he  concludes  there  is  no 
more  to  be  seen  ;  when  he  is  at  the  end  of  his  line,  he  is  at 
the  bottom  of  the  ocean  ;  when  he  has  shot  his  best,  he  is 
sure  none  ever  did,  or  ever  can  shoot  better,  or  beyond  it. 
His  own  reason  he  holds  to  be  the  certain  measure  of  truth; 
and  his  own  knowledge,  of  what  is  possible  in  nature.' — 
Here  every  thing  is  at  once  easy  to  the  breath,  grateful  to 
the  ear,  and  intelligible  to  the  understanding.  See  another 
example  of  the  same  kind^  in  the  17th  and  18th  verses  of 
the  oi\  chapter  of  the  prophet  Habakkuk.  We  may  remark 
]iere,  that  our  present  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  espe- 
'jally  of  the  Psalms,  abounds  with  instances  of  an  harmo- 
oious  arrangement  of  the  words  and  members  of  sentences. 

In  the  following  quotation  from  Tillotson,  we  shall  be- 
come sensible  of  an  effect  very  differei/t  from  that  of  the 
preceding  sentences.      'This  discourse,  concerning  the  ea- 
siness of  the  Divine  commands,  does  all  along  suppose  and 
acknowledge  the  difficulties  of  the  first  entrance  upon  a  re- 
ligious course  ;  except  only  in  those  p<  '^ho  have  had 
the  happiness  to  be  trained  up  to  rell  easy  and 
insensible  degrees  of  a  pious  and  \  -  ^-     ' 
Here  there  is  some  deo;ree of  harshness  an^ 
owing  principally  to  this,  that  there  is  j»rdp^, 
than  oae  pause  or  r^sf  in  the  sentence,  falling  beivv..^. 
Aa2 


APPENDIX,  [Strength. 

'wo  Miouiliei's  into  >vhu'h  it  is  divUled ;  each  of  which  is  so 
long  as  lo  occasion  a  considerable  stretch  ol'  the  breath  in 
roaouucing  it. 

V/ith  respect  to  tlie  cadence  or  close  of  a  sentence,  care 
should  be  taken,  that  it  be  not  abrupt,  or  unpleasant.  The 
Tollowing  instances  may  be  sufficient  to  show  the  propriety 
of  some  attention  to  this  part  of  the  rule.  'Virtue,  dili- 
gence, and  industry,  joined  with  good  temper  and  prudence, 
are  prosperous  in  general.'  It  would  be  better  thus  :  'Vir- 
tue, diligence,  and  industry,  joined  with  good  temper  and 
prudence,  have  ever  been  found  the  surest  road  to  prosper- 
ity.' An  author  speaking  of  the  Trinity,  expresses  himself 
thus  :  *It  is  a  m^^stery  which  we  firmly  lielieve  the  truth  of, 
and  liunibhy  adore  the  depth  of.'  How  much  better  would 
it  liave  been  with  this  transposition:  *It  is  a  mystery,  ttie 
truth  of  which  we  firmly  believe,  and  the  depth  of  which 
we  humbly  adore.' 

In  order  to  give  a  sentence  this  proper  ch^se,  the  longest 
member  of  it,  and  the  fullest  words,  sb.ould  be  re  served  to 
the  conclusion.  But  in  the  distriliution  of  the  members,  and 
in  the  cadence  of  the  perioil,  as  well  as  in  the  sentences 
themselves,  variety  must  be  observed;  for  the  mind  soon 
tires  with  a  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  tone. 

Though  attention  to  the  words  and  members,  and  the 
close  of  sentences,  must  not  be  neglected,  yet  it  must  also 
be  kept  within  proper  bounds.  Sense  has  its  own  harmo- 
ny ;  and  in  no  instance  should  perspicuity,  precision,  or 
strength  of  sentiment,  be  sacriticed  to  sound.  All  unmean- 
ing words,  introduced  merely  to  round  the  periotl,  or  fill  up 
tl  ^  melodjs  are  great  blemishes  in  writing.  They  are 
childish  and  trivial  ornaments,  by  which  a  sentence  always 
loses  more  in  point  of  weight,  than  it  can  gain  by  such  ad- 
ditions to  jts  sound. 

,  should 
;ent  one.     ^ 
.J,  This  is  p 
i^ent  parer* 
.  'Thic^  ' 


Figures.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  ^^^ 

CHAPTER  lY. 

OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

The  FOURTH  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence,  is  a  judi- 
cious use  of  the  Figures  of  Speech. 

As  fi2;urat!ve  language  is  to  he  met  with  in  almost  every 
sentf  nr'e;  and  when  properly  employed,  confers  beauty  and 
s-r-  agth  on  composition;  some  knowledge  of  it  appears  to 
be  indispens.hle  to  the  scholars,  who  are  learning  to  form 
their  sentences  with  perspicuity,  accuracy,  and  force.  We 
shall,  therefore,  enumerate  the  principal  figures,  and  give 
them  some  explanation. 

In  general,  Figures  of  Speech  imply  some  departure  from 
simplicity  of  exj/^  ( ssion  ;  the  idea  which  we  mean  to  con- 
vey is  expressed  in  a  particular  manner,  and  with  some  cir- 
cumstance added,  which  is  designed  to  render  the  impres- 
sion more  strong  and  vivid.  When  I  say,  tor  instance, 
'That  a  good  man  enjoys  comfort  in  the  midst  of  adversi- 
ty ;'  I  just  express  my  thoughts  in  the  slmfilest  manner  i)€>s- 
sible:  but  when  1  say,  'To  the  upright  the:i3  ariseth  light 
in  darkness  ;'  the  same  sentiment  is  expressed  in  a  figura- 
tive style  ;  a  new  circumstance  is  introduced  ;  'light,'  is  put 
in  tlie  place  of  'comfort,'  and  'darkness'  is  used  to  suggest 
the  idea  of  'adversity.'  In  the  same  manner,  to  say,  'It  is 
impossible,  by  any  search  we  can  make,  to  explore  the  Di- 
vine Nature  fully,'  is  to  make  a  simple  proposition  :  but 
^vhen  we  say,  'Canst  thou,  by  searching,  find  out  the  Lord  ? 
Canst  thou  find  out  the  Almighty  to  perfection  ?  It  is  high 
as  heaven,  what  canst  thou  do?  deeper  than  hell,  what 
canst  thou  know  V  This  introduces  a  figure  into  style  ;  the 
proposition  being  not  only  expressed,  but  with  it  admiration^ 
and  astonishment. 

But,  though  figures  imply  a  deviation  from  what  may  be 
reckoned  the  most  simple  form  of  speech,  we  are  not  thence 
to  conclude,  that  they  imply  any  thing  uncommon,  or  un- 
natural. On  many  occasions,  they  are  both  the  most  natu- 
ral, and  the  most  common  method  of  uttering  our  senti- 
nsents.  It  would  be  very  difficult  to  compose  any  discourse 
without  using  them  often  5  Day,  there  are  few  sentences  of 


296  APPENDIX.  (Figures. 

considerable  length,  in  which  there  does  not  occur  some  ck- 
prcssion  Uiat  may  !»e  termed  a  fip;ure.  This  beinsi;  the  case, 
we  may  see  the  necessily  of  some  attention,  in  order  to  un- 
derstand their  nature  and  use. 

At  the  first  rise  of  langua^ie,  men  wouhl  begin  with  giv- 
ing names  to  the  ditferent  objects  which  they  discerned,  or 
thought  of.  The  stock  of  words  would,  then,  be  very  small. 
As  men's  ideas  multiplied,  and  their  acquaintance  with  ob- 
jects increased,  their  store  of  names  and  words  would  also 
increase.  But  to  the  vast  variety  of  objects  and  ideas,  no 
language  is  adequate.  No  laugu;:ge  is  so  copious,  as  to 
have  a  separate  word  for  every  separate  idea.  Men  natur- 
ally sought  to  abri<lge  this  labor  of  mnlti{)lying  words  with- 
out end  ;  anil,  in  order  to  lay  less  burden  on  their  memories, 
made  one  word,  whicii  they  had  already  appropriated  to  a 
certain  idea  or  object,  stand  also  for  some  other  idea  or  ob- 
ject, between  which  and  the  primary  one,  they  found,  or 
fancied,  some  relation.  The  names  of  sensible  objects, 
were  the  words  most  earl}'  introduced;  and  were,  by  de- 
grees, extended  to  those  mental  objects,  of  which  men  had 
more  obscure  conceptions,  and  to  which  they  found  it  more 
diffieult  to  assign  distinct  names.  They  borrowed,  there- 
fore, the  name  of  some  sensible  idea,  where  their  imagina- 
tion found  some  affinity.  Thus,  we  speak  of  a  piercing 
judgment,  and  a  dear  head  ;  a  soft  or  a  hard  heart ;  a  rough 
or  a  smooth  behavior.  We  say,  iriflamcd  by  anger,  warmed 
by  love,  swelled  with  pride,  miltd  into  grief;  and  these  are 
almost  the  only  significant  words  which  we  have  for  such 
ideas. 

The  principal  advantages  of  figures  of  speech,  are  the 
two  following. 

Firsts  The}^  enrich  language,  and  render  it  more  copious. 
By  their  means,  words  and  phrases  are  multiplied,  for  ex- 
pressing all  sorts  of  ideas  ;  for  descril>ing  even  the  minutest 
differences ;  the  nicest  shades  and  colors  of  thought ;  which 
BO  language  could  possibly  do  by  proper  words  alone,  with- 
out assistance  from  Tropes. 

SccondU/^  They  frequently  give  us  a  much  clearer,  and 
more  striking  view  of  the  principal  object,  than  we  could 
have,  if  it  were  expressed  in  sim[)le  terms,  and  divested  of 
its  accessory  idea.      By  a  well  chusep  figure,  even  convic- 


Figures,)  PERSPICUITY,  4c.  297 

tion  is  assisted,  and  the  impression  of  a  truth  upon  the  mind, 
made  more  lively  and  forcible  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 
We  perceive  this  in  the  following  illustration  of  Young : 
'When  we  dip  too  deep  in  pleasure,  we  always  stir  a  sedi- 
ment that  renders  it  impure  and  noxious  :'  and  in  this  in- 
stance; 'A  heart  boiling  with  violent  passions,  will  always 
send  up  infatuating  fumes  to  the  head.'  An  image  that 
presents  so  much  congruity  between  a  moral  and  a  sensible 
idea,  serves,  like  an  argument  from  analogy,  to  enforce  what 
the  author  asserts,  and  lo  induce  belief. 

Having  considered  the  general  nature  of  figfires,  we  pro- 
ceed next  to  particularize  such  of  them,  as  are  of  the  most 
importance  ;  namely.  Metaphor,  Allegory,  Comparison,  Me- 
tonymy, Sj^necdoche,  Personification,  Apostrophe,  Antith^ 
esis,  Interrogation,  Exclamation,  Amplification,  or  Cli- 
max, &c. 

A  Metaphor  is  a  figure  founded  entirely  on  the  resem- 
blance which  one  object  bears  to  another.  Hence,  it  is 
much  allied  to  simile  or  comparison,  and  is  indeed  no  other 
than  a  comparison,  expressed  in  an  abridged  form.  When 
I  say  of  some  great  minister,  'that  he  upholds  the  state,  like 
a  pillar  which  supports  the  weight  of  a  whole  edifice,'  I 
fairly  make  a  comparison :  but  when  I  say  of  such  a  min- 
ister, Hhat  he  is  the  pillar  of  the  state,'  it  now  beomes  a 
metaphor.  In  the  latter  case,  the  comparison  between  the 
minister  and  a  pillar  is  made  in  the  mind ;  but  it  is  express- 
ed without  any  of  the  words  that  denote  comparison. 

The  following  are  examples  of  metaphor  taken  from 
Scripture  ;  'I  will  be  unto  her  a  wall  of  fire  round  about, 
and  will  be  the  gloky  in  the  midst  of  her.'  *Thou  art  my 
rock  and  my  fortress.'  'Thy  word  is  a  lamp  to  my  feet, 
and  a  light  to  my  path.' 

Rules  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  metaphors. 

1 .  Metaphors^  as  7vell  as  other  figures,  should,  on  no  occa- 
sion, he  stuck  on  profusely  ;  and  should  alwai^s  be  such  as 
accord  with  the  strain  of  our  sentiment.  The  latter  part  of 
the  following  passage,  from  a  late  historian,  is,  in  this  res- 
pect, very  exceptionable.  He  is  giving  an  account  of  the 
famous  act  of  parliament  against  irregular  marriages  in 
England.      'The  bill,'  says  he,  'underwent  a  great  number 


,JB  APPENDIX.  [Figures, 

of  alterations  and  amendments,  which  were  not  effected 
without  violent  contest.  At  length,  however,  it  was  float- 
ed through  both  houses  on  the  tide  of  a  great  majority,  and 
steered  into  the  safe  harbor  of  royal  approbation.' 

2.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  resemblance^  which  is  the 
foundation  of  the  rnetaphor^  be  clear  and  perspicuous^  not  far 
fctchcdf  nor  dijjicull  to  discover.  The  transgression  of  this 
rule  makes  what  are  called  harsh  or  forced  metaphors; 
'vhich  are  displeasing,   because  they  puzzle  the  reader,  and 

fistead  of  illustrating  the  thought,  render  it  perplexing  and 
nitricate.  ^ 

3.  In  the  third  place,  we  should  be  careful,  in  the  con- 
duct of  metaphors,  never  to  jumble  metaphorical  and  plain 
language  together.  An  author,  addressing  himself  to  the 
king,  says  : 

'J^o  thee  the  world  its  present  homage  pays; 
The  harvest  early,  but  mature  the  praise. 

It  is  plain,  that,  had  not  the  rhyme  misled  him  to  the  choice 
of  an  improj)er  phrase,  he  would  have  said, 
The  harvest  early,  but  mature  the  crop  ; 
ru  so  \vt)uM  ilHve  continued  the  tignre  which  he  had  be- 
gun. Whereas,  by  dropping  it  unfinished,  and  by  t-mi»}i»ys 
iug  the  literal  wonl  upraise,'  when  we  were  expecting  some- 
thing that  related  to  liie  harvest,  the  figure  is  broken,  and 
the  two  members  of  the  stiiUiice  luivc  no  suitable  corres- 
pondence to  each  oUier. 

A,  We  sliould  avoid  making  two  iiiconsislcnt  metaphors 
meet  on  one  object.  This  is  what  is  called  ?m.rfr/ meta- 
phor, and  is  indeed  one  of  the  greatest  misapplications  of 
this  figure.  One  may  be  'shtUercd  under  the  patronage  of 
a  great  man  :'  but  it  w ould  be  wrong  to  say,  '-sheltered  un- 
der the  m  isk  of  dissimulation  ;'  as  a  mask  conceals,  hut 
does  not  shelier  Addison  in  his  letter  from  Italy,  says  : 
I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  with  pain, 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain. 
The  muse,  figured  as  a  horse,  may  be  bridled;  but  when 
we  speak  of  launching,  we  make  it  a  siiip  ;  and  by  no  force 
of  im;i2:ination,  can  it  be  supposed  both  a  horse  and  a  ship 
at  one  moment ;  bridled,  to  hinder  it  from  launching. 


Figures.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c,  2UD 

The  same  author,  elsewhere,  says,  'There  is  not  a  single 
view  of  human  nature,  which  is  not  sufficient  to  cxiin2;uish 
the  seeds  of  pride.'  Observe  the  incoherence  of  the  things 
here  joined  togetiier;  mailing  a  view  extinguish,  and  extin- 
guish seeds. 

As  metaphors  ought  never  to  be  mixed,  so  they  should 
not  be  crowded  together  on  the  same  oliject;  for  the  mind 
has  difficulty  in  passing  readily  through  many  different  views 
of  the  same  object  presented  in  quick  succession. 

The  last  rule  concerning  metaphors,  is,  that  they  he  not 
too  far  pursued.  If  the  resemblance,  on  which  the  figure 
is  founded,^  be  long  dwelt  upon,  and  carried  into  all  its  mi- 
nute circumstances,  we  lire  the  reader,  who  soon  grows  wea- 
ry of  this  stretch  of  fancy ;  and  we  render  our  discourse  ob- 
scure. This  is  called  strainm^  a  metaphor.  Authors  of  a 
lively  and  strong  imagination  are  apt  to  run  info  this  exu- 
bt5  ace  of  metaphor.  When  they  hit  upon  a  figure  that 
pleases  them,  they  are  loth  to  part  with  it,  and  frequently 
continue  it  so  long,  as  to  become  tedious  and  intricate. — 
We  may  observe,  for  instance,  how  the  following  metaphor 
is  spun  out. 

Thy  thoughts  are  vagabonds;  all  outward  bonnd, 

'Midst  sands,  and  rocks,  and  storms,  to  cruise  for  pleasure; 

If  gain'd,  dear  bought ;  and  better  miss'd  than  gaiu'd- 

Fancy  and  sense,  from  an  infected  shore, 

Thy  cargo  bring ;  and  pestilence  the  prize  : 

Then  such  a  thirst,  insatiable  thirst, 

By  fond  indulgence  but  inflam'd  the  more  ; 

Fancy  still  cruises,  when  poor  sense  is  tired. 

An  Allesiory  may  be  regarded  as  a  metaphor  continued  ; 
since  U  is  the  representation  of  some  one  thing  by  another 
that  resembles  it,  and  which  is  made  to  stand  for  it.  W"e 
may  take  from  the  Scriptures  a  very  fine  examjde  of  an  al- 
legory, in  the  80th  Psalm ;  where  the  peo()le  of  Israel  are 
represented  under  the  image  of  a  vine;  and  the  figure  is 
carried  throughout  with  great  exactness  and  beauty.  'Thou 
hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt ;  thou  hast  cast  out  ihe 
heathen,  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  before  it ; 
and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land. 


JOU  APPENDIX.  [Figure,, 

The  liills  were  covered  with  (he  shadow  of  it;  and  the 
boughs  thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars.  She  sent  out 
her  boughs  into  the  sea,  and  her  branches  into  the  river. 
Why  hast  thou  broken  down  her  hedges,  so  that  all  they 
which  pass  by  the  way  do  pluck  her  ?  The  boar  out  of  the 
wood  doth  waste  it,  and  tlie  wild  beast  of  the  field  doth  de- 
vour it.  Return,  we  beseech  thee,  O  God  of  Hosts,  look 
down  from  heaven,  and  behold  and  visit  this  vine  !'  See 
also  Ezekiel  xvii.  22 — 24. 

The  first  and  principal  requisite  in  the  conduct  of  an  al- 
legory, is,  that  the  fifruraiive  and  the  literal  meaning  he  not 
viixcd  inconsistently  together.  Indeed,  all  the  rules  that 
were  given  for  metaphors,  may  also  be  applied  to  allego- 
ries, on  account  of  the  affinity  they  bear  to  each  other. 
The  only  material  diiTerence  between  them,  besides  the  one 
being  short  and  the  other  being  prolonged,  is,  that  a  meta- 
phor always  explains  itself  by  the  words  that  are  connect- 
ed with  it  in  (heir  proper  pnd  natural  meaning  :  as,  wl.cn  I 
say,  'Achilles  was  a  lion;'  'An  able  minister  is  the  pillar 
of  the  slate  ;'  the  'lion' and  the  'pillar' are  sufficiently. in- 
terpreted by  the  mention  of  'Achilles'  and  the  'minister,' 
which  I  join  to  them ;  but  an  allegory  is,  or  may  be,  allow- 
ed to  stand  less  connected  with  the  literal  meaning,  the  in- 
terpretation not  being  so  directly  pointed  out,  but  left  to  our 
own  refleclion. 

Allegory  was  a  favorite  method  of  delivering  instruction 
in  ancient  times ;  for  what  we  call  fables  or  parables,  are 
no  other  than  allegories.  By  words  and  actions  attributed 
to  beasts  or  inanimate  ol^jects,  the  disfmsitions  of  men  were 
figured ;  and  what  we  call  the  moral,  is  the  unfigured  sense 
or  meaning  of  the  allegory. 

A  Conipanson  or  si^nile,  is,  when  tlie  resemblance  be- 
tween two  objects  is  expressed  in  fornix  and  generally  pur- 
sued more  fully  than  the  nature  of  a  metaphor  admits;  as 
when  it  is  said,  'The  actions  of  princes  are  like  those  great 
rivers,  the  course  of  which  every  one  beholds,  but  their 
springs  have  been  seen  by  few.'  'As  the  mountains  are 
round  about  Jerusalem,  so  the  Lord  is  round  about  bis  peo- 
ple.' 'Behold,  how  good  and  how  nieas  int  it  is  for  brethren 
to  dwell  toirether  in  unity  !  It  is  like  the  precious  ointment, 
&c.  ami  as  the  dew  that  descended  upon  the  mountains  of 
Zion' 


Figures.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  301 

The  advantage  of  this  figure  arises  from  the  illusfratioa 
which  the  simile  f  mplo^'^ed  gives  to  the  principal  object ; 
from  the  clearer  view  which  it  presents  ;  or  the  more  strong 
impression  which  it  stamps  upon  the  mind.  Observe 
the  etTect  of  it  in  the  following  instance.  The  author  is 
ex[>Iaining  the  distinction  between  the  powers  of  sense  and 
imagination  in  the  human  mind.  'As  wax,'  says  he,  *wouid 
not  be  adequate  to  the  purpose  of  signature,  if  it  had*  not 
the  power  to  retain  as  well  as  to  receive  the  imjiression,  the 
same  holds  of  the  soul  wilh  respect  to  sense  and  imngina- 
tion.  Sense  is  its  receptive  power;  imagination,  ils  reten- 
tive. Had  it  sense  without  imagination,  it  would  not  lie  as 
wax,  hut  as  water,  where,  though  all  impressions  are  in- 
stantly made,  yet  as  soon  as  the}'  are  made,  they  are  in- 
stantly lost.' 

In  comparisons  of  this  nature,  the  understanding  is  coji- 
cerned  much  more  than  the  fancy  :  and  tlierefore  the  rul^ 
to  be  observed,  with  respect^o  them,  are,  that  they  be  clear, 
and  that  they  be  useful ;  that  they  tend  to  render  our  con- 
ception of  the  principal  object  more  distinct ;  and  that  they 
do  not  lead  our  view  aside,  and  bewilder  it  with  any  false 
light.  We  should  always  remember  that  similes  are  not 
arguments.  However  apt  they  may  be,  they  do  no  more 
than  explain  the  writer's  sentiments;  they  do  not  prove 
them  to  be  founded  on  truth. 

Comparisons  ought  not  to  he  founded  on  likenesses  which 
are  too  faint  and  remote.  For  these,  in  place  o(  assisting, 
strain  the  mind  to  comprehend  them,  and  throw  no  light 
upon  the  subject.  H  is  also  to  be  ol  served,  that  a  compar- 
ison which,  in  the  principal  circumstances,  carries  a  suffi- 
ciently near  resemblance,  may  become  unnatural  and  ob- 
scure, if  pushed  too  far.  Nolhiug  is  more  opposite  to  the 
design  of  this  figure,  than  to  bunt  after  a  great  number  of 
coincidences  in  minute  points,  merely  to  show  how  far  the 
writer's  ingenuity  can  stretch  the  resemblance. 

A  Metonymy  n  founded  on  the  several  relations,  pf  cause 
and  effect,  container  and  contained,  sign  and  thing  signifi- 
ed. When  we  say,  'They  read  Milton,'  the  cause  is  put 
instead  of  the  effect :  meaning  'Milton's  works.'  On  the 
Other  hand,  when  it  is  said,  'Gray  hairs  should  be  respect 
Bb 


302  APPENDIX.  (Figures, 

eiV  we  put  the  effect  for  the  cause,  meaning  by  *gray  hairs' 
old  age,  *The  kettle  boils,'  is  a  phrase  \Nhere  the  name  of 
the  container  is  substituted  for  the  thing;  contained.  'To 
assume  the  sceptre,'  is  a  common  expression  for  entf  ring;  on 
royal  authority  ;  the  sign  being  put  for  the  thing  signified. 

When  the  whole  is  put  for  a  part,  or  a  part  for  the  whole; 
a  genus  for  a  species,  or  a  species  for  a  genus ;  in  general, 
when  any  thing  less,  or  any  thing  more,  is  put  fur  the  pie- 
cise  object  meant ;  the  figure  is  then  called  a  Synecdvche  or 
Comprehension,  It  is  very  common,  for -instance,  to  de- 
scribe a  whole  object  by  some  remarkable  part  of  it  :  as 
when  we  say,  'A  fleet  of  twenty  saily  in  the  place  of  '•ships  i 
when  we  use  the  ^head^  for  the  ^pcrson^  the  'waves*  for  tlje 
'5m.'  In  like  manner,  an  attribute  may  be  put  for  a  sub- 
ject :  as,  'Youth'  for  the  'young,'  the  'deep'  for  the  'sea ;' 
and  sometimes  a  subject  for  its  attribute. 

Prrsonification  or  Proscprpoda,  is  that  figure  by  which 
we  attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  olyects.  Tbe  use 
of  this  figure  is  very  natural  and  extensive  :  there  is  a  won- 
derful pronrn(SS  in  human  nature,  under  emotion,  to  ani- 
mate all  objects.  AVhen  wt*  say,  'the  ground //jiV.vf^  for 
rain,'  or,  'the  earth  siniUs  with  pbnty  ;'  \>hen  we  speak  of 
'ambition's  being  restless,^  or,  'a  disease's  being  deceitful ;' 
fjuch  expressions  show  the  facility  w  ith  which  the  mind  can 
accommodate  the  properties  of  living  creatures  to  things 
that  are  inanimate,  or  to  abstract  conceptions  of  its  own 
forming.  The  following  are  sti iking  exam{)ks  from  the 
Scriptures  :  'When  Isr  el  went  out  of  Egypt,  the  house  of 
Judah  from  a  people  of  strange  language ;  the  sea  saw  it, 
and  flf'd  :  Jordan  was  driven  back  !  The  mountains  skip- 
ped like  rams,  and  the  little  hills  ITke  lambs.  What  ailed 
thee,  0  thou  sea!  that  thou  fleddi st?  Thou  Jordan,  that 
thou  wast  driven  back  ?  Ye  mountains,  that  ye  skipptd 
like  rams;  and  ye  little  hills,  like  lambs  /  Tremble,  thou 
earth,  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  at  the  presence  of  the 
Uotl  of  Jacob.' 

*The  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  shall  be  glad  for 
ihem ;  and  the  desert  shall  rejoice  arid  Idossom  as  the  rose.* 

Milton  thus  describes  the  immediate  etfects  of  eating  the 
forbidden  fruit.     Terror  produces  the  figure. 


Figures.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  30a 

Earth  (rembled  from  her  entrails,  as  again 
In  pangs,  and  nature  gave  a  second  groan  ; 
8ky  low'rVI,  and,  mutt'ring  thunder,  some  sad  drops 
Wept,  at  complermg  of  tlie  mortal  sin. 

The  impatienee  of  Adam  to  know  his  origin,  is  supposed 
to  prompt  the  personification  of  all  the  objects  he  beheld, 
in  order  to  procure  information. 

Thou  sun,  said  1,  fair  light ! 
And  thou  enlightea'd  eartli,  so  fresh  and  gaj" ! 
Ye  hills  and  dales,  ye  rivers,  woods,  and  plains, 
And  ye  that  live  and  move,  fair  creatures,  tell, 
Tell,  if  you  saw,  how  came  1  thus,  how  here  ? 

We  shall  give  a  remarkably  fine  example  of  this  figure, 
from  bishop  Sherlock.  He  has  beautifuMy  personified  nat- 
ural religion  :  and  we  may  perceive,  in  the  personification, 
the  spirit  and  grace  which  the  figure,  when  well  conducted, 
bestows  on  discourse.  The  author  is  comparing  together 
our  Saviour  and  Mahomet.  'Go  (says  he)  to  your  natural 
Religion  :  lay  before  her  Mahomet,  and  his  disciples,  array- 
ed in  armor  and  blood,  riding  in  triumph  over  tht^  spoils  of 
thousands  who  fell  by  his  victorious  sword.  Show  her  the 
cities  which  he  set  in  flames,  the  countries  which  he  rava- 
ged and  destroyed,  and  the  miserable  distress  of  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  earth.  When  she  has  viewed  him  in  this 
scene,  carry  her  into  his  retirement :  show  her  the  Proph- 
et's chaml)er;  his  concubines  and  his  wives;  and  let  her 
hear  him  allege  revelation,  and  a  Divine  command,  to  justi- 
fy his  adultery  and  lust.' 

'Wlien  she  is  ti^d  with  this  prospect,  then  show  her  the 
blessed  Jesus,  humble  and  meek,  doing  good  to  all  the  sons 
of  men.  Let  her  see  him  in  his  most  retired  privacies  ;  let 
her  follow  him  to  the  mount,  and  hear  his  devotions  and 
supplications  to  God.  Carry  her  to  his  table,  to  view  his 
poor  fare ;  and  hear  his  heavenly  discourse.  Let  her  at- 
tend him  to  the  tribunal,  and  consider  the  patience  with 
which  he  endured  the  scotls  and  reproaches  of  his  enemies. 
Lead  her  to  his  cross ;  let  her  view  him  in  the  agony  of 
death,  and  hear  his  last  prayer  for  his  persecutors  ;  'Father, 
forgive  them,  for  they  know  not  what  they  do.'  When 
Natural  Religion  iias  thus  viewed  both,  ask  her,  which  is 


304  APPEIVDIX.  {P'giires, 

the  Prophet  of  God  ? — But  her  answer  we  have  alreaily 
had,  when  she  saw  part  of  this  scene,  through  the  i^yes  of 
the  Centurion,  who  attended  at  the  cross.        Hy  him  she 

spoke,  and  s.iid,  'Truly  this  man  was  the  Son  of  Gixl.' 

Q'his  is  more  than  elegant;  it  i&truly  sufdime.  The  whole 
pasS'tfice  is  animated  ;  and  the  fij^ure  rises  at  the  conclusion, 
when  Natural  Religion,  who,  hetorp,  was  only  a  spectator, 
is  introduced  as  speaking  by  the  Centurion'*8  voice. 

This  figure  of  s^eoch  is  sometimeg  very  improperly  and 
extravai2:antly  applied.  A  capital  error  in  personifying  ob- 
jects, is,  to  deck  them  with  f  intastic  and  trifling  circum- 
stances. A  practice  of  this  sort  dissolves  the  potent  charm, 
\vhich  enchants  and  deceives  the  reader;  and  either  leaves 
bim  dissatisfied,  or  excites,  perhaps,  his  risibility. 

Another  error,  frequent  in  descriptive  personifications, 
consists  in  introducing  them,  when  the  sul)ject  of  discussion 
Is  destitute  of  dignity,  and  the  reader  is  not  prepared  to  rel- 
ish them.  One  can  scarcely  peruse,  with  composure,  the 
following  use  of  this  figure.  It  is  the  language  of  our  ele- 
jrant  poet  Thomson,  who  thus  personifies  and  connects  the 
'^odily  appetites  and  their  gratifications. 

Then  sated  Hunger  bids  his  brother  Thirst 
Produce  the  mighty  bowl  : 
Nor  wanting  is  the  brown  October,  drawn 
Mature  and  perfect,  from  his  dark  retreat 
Of  thirty  years  :  and  now  his  honest  frent 
Flames  in  the  light  refulgent. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  concerning  this  figure,  and  short 
metaphors  and  similes,  which  also  have  been  allowed  to  be 
the  proper  language  of  high  passion,  that  they  are  the  prop- 
er expression  of  it,  only  on  those  occasions  when  it  is  so  tar 
moderated  as  to  admit  of  words.  The  first  and  highest 
transports  seem  to  overwhelm  the  mind,  and  are  denoted  by 
silence  or  groans  :  next  succeeds  the  violent  and  passionate 
language,  of  which  these  figures  constitute  a  great  part. 
Such  agitation,  however,  cannot  long  continue ;  the  pas- 
sions having  spent  their  force,  the  mind  soon  subsides  into 
that  exhausted  and  dispirited  state^  in  which  all  figures  are 
improper. 


Figures.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  305 

Apostrophe  is  a  turnicg  ofT  from  the  regular  course  of  the 
subject,  to  address  some  person  or  thing :  as,  'Death  is 
swallowed  up  in  victory.  O  death  !  where  is  thy  sting  ?  O 
grave  !  where  is  thy  victory  ?' 

The  following  is  an  instance  of  personification  and  apos- 
trophe united  :  O  thou  sword  of  the  Lord  !  how  long  will  it 
be  ere  thou  he  quiet  ?  put  thyself  up  into  thy  scabl^anl,  rest 
and  he  still !  How  can  it  be  quiet,  seeing  the  Lord  hath  giv- 
en it  a  charge  against  Askelon,  and  against  the  sea-shore  ? 
there  hath  he  appointed  it.'  See  also  an  extraordinary  ex- 
ample of  these  figures,  in  the  14th  cha[)ter  of  Isaiah,  from 
the  4th  to  the  19ih  verse,  where  the  prophet  describes  the 
fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire 

A  princi}>al  error,  in  the  use  of  the  Apostrophe,  is,  to 
deck  the  object  addressed  with  affected  ornaments;  'yy  which 
authors  relinquish  the  expression  of  passion,  and  su- stitute 
for  if  the  language  of  fancy. 

A  lother  frequent  error  i9^  to  extend  tl)is  figure  to  too 
gre:tt  length.  The  languagi^  of  violent  p assioi  is  always 
concise,  and  often  abrupt.  It  passes  suddenly  from  one  ob- 
ject to  another.  It  often  glances  at  a  thought,  starts  from 
it,  and  leaves  it  unfinished.  The  succession  of  ideas  is  ir- 
regular, and  connected  by  distant  and  uncommon  relations. 
On  all  these  accounts,  nothing  is  more  unnatural  than  long 
speeches,  uttered  by  persons  under  the  influence  of  strong 
passions.  Yet  this  error  occurs  in  several  poets  of  distia^ 
guished  reputation. 

The  next  figure  in  order,  is  Antithesis.  Comparison  is 
foimded  on  the  resemblance  ;  antithesis,  on  the  contrast  or 
opposition  of  two  objects.  Contrast  has  always  the  eifect, 
to  make  each  of  the  contrasted  objects  appear  in  the  stron- 
ger light.  White,  for  instance,  never  appears  so  bright  as 
'svhen  it  is  opposed  to  black;  and  when  both  are  viewed  to- 
gether. An  author,  in  his  defence  of  a  friend  against  the 
charge  of  murder,  expresses  himself  thus  :  'Can  you  be- 
lieve that  the  person  whom  he  scrupled  to  slay,  when  he 
might  have  done  so  with  full  justice,  in  a  convenient  place, 
at  a  proper  time,  with  secure  impunity;  he  made  no  scru- 
ple to  murder  against  justice,  in  an  unfavorable  place,  at  am 
unreasonable  time,  and  at  the  risk  of  capital  condemnation  T 
Bb2 


30U  APPENDIX.  (Figures. 

The  following  examples  further  illustrate  this  figure. 
Tho'  deep,  yet  clear;  The'  gentle,  yet  noi  dall ; 
Strong  without  rage;  without  o'erflowing,  tulL 

*lf  you  wish  to  enrich  a  person,  study  not  to  increase  his 
stores,  but  to  diminish  his  desires.' 

*iryou  regulate  your  desires  according  to  the  standard  of 
nature,  you  will  never  be  jjoor;  if  according  to  the  stand- 
ar<l  of  opinion,  you  will  never  be  rich.' 

A  maxim,  or  moral  saying,  very  properly  receives  the 
form  of  the  two  last  examples;  both  because  it  is  supposed 
to  l)e  the  fruit  of  meditation,  and  because*  it  is  designed  to 
be  engraven  on  the  memory,  w  hich  recals  it  more  easily  by 
the  help  of  such  contrasted  expressions.  But  where  such 
sentences  frequently  succeed  each  oiher ;  where  this  be- 
comes an  author's  favorite  and  prevailing  manner  of  expres- 
sing himself,  his  style  appears  too  much  studied  and  labor- 
ed; it  gives  us  an  imj)r<'ssion  of  an  author  attending  more 
to  his  manner  of  saying  things,  than  to  the  things  them- 
selves. 

The  following  is  a  beautiful  example  of  Antithesis.  'If 
Cato  may  lie  cengure<l,  severely  indeed,  but  justly,  for  aban- 
doning the  cause  of  lilu rty,  which  he  would  not,  however, 
survive  ;  w  hat  shall  we  say  of  those  who  embrace  it  faintly, 
pursue  it  irr  solutely,  grow  tired  of  it  when  they  have  much 
to  hope,  and  give  it  up  when  they  have  nothing  to  fear  T — 
The  capital  antithes'^s  of  this  sentence,  is  instituted  between 
the  zeal  of  Cato  for  liberty,  and  the  indifference  of  seme 
others  of  her  patrons.  But,  besides  the  leading  antithesis, 
there  are  two  8ul)ordin  ite  ones,  in  the  latter  member:  'Grow 
tired  of  it,  when  they  have  much  to  hope;  and  give  it  up, 
%\hen  they  have  nothing  to  fear.' 

The  eloquent  Burke  has  exhibited  a  fine  instance  of  this 
figure,  in  his  eulogium  of  the  j)hilanthropic  Howard. 

'He  has  visited  all  Europe, — not  to  survey  the  sumptu- 
ousness  of  palaces,  or  the  stateliness  of  temples ;  not  to  make 
accurate  measurements  of  the  remains  of  ancient  grandeur, 
nor  to  form  a  scale  of  the  curiosity  of  modern  art ;  nor  to 
collect  medals,  or  collate  manuscripts  : — but  to  dive  into  the 
depths  of  dungeons  ;  to  plunge  into  the  infection  of  hospit- 
als ;  to  survey  the  mansions  of  sorrow  and  pain ;  to  take  the 
^ge  and  dimensions  of  misery,  depression,  and  contempt ; 


Figures,)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  307 

to  remember  the  forgotten,  to  attend  to  the  neglected,  to 
visit  the  forsaken,  and  compare  and  collate  the  distresses  of 
ail  rnen,  in  all  countries.' 

The  next  figure  concerning  which  we  are  to  treat,  is  call- 
ed Hyperbole  or  Exaggeration,  It  consists  in  magnifying 
an  oljject  beyond  its  natural  bounds.  In  all  langu  ig<  s,  even 
in  common  conversation,  hyperbolical  expressions  very  fre- 
quently occur  :  as  swift  as  the  wind  ;  as  white  as  the  snow; 
and  the  like ;  and  the  common  forms  ol  compliment,  nre  al- 
most all  of  them  extravagant  hyperJ/o!es.  If  any  thing  be 
remarkably  good  or  great  in  its  kind,  we  are  instantly  ready- 
to  add  to  it  some  exaggerating  epithet,  and  to  make  it  the 
greatest  or  uest  we  ever  saw.  The  imagination  has  always 
a  tendency  to  gratify  itself,  by  magnifying  its  present  ob- 
ject, and  carrying  it  to  excess.  More  or  les^  of  this  hyper- 
bolical turn  will  prevail  in  language,  according  to  the  live- 
liness of  imagination  among  the  people  who  speak  it.  Hence 
young  people  deal  much  in  hyperboles.  Hence  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Orientals  was  far  more  hyperbolical,  than  that 
of  the  Europeans,  w4io  are  of  more  phlegmatic,  or,  perhaps 
we  may  say,  of  more  correct  imagination.  Hence  among 
all  wriers  in  early  times,  and  in  the  rude  periods  of  society, 
%\e  may  expect  this  figure  to  abound  Greater  experience, 
and  more  cultivated  society,  abate  the  warmth  of  imagina- 
lioii,  and  chasten  the  manner  of  expression. 

Hyperboles  are  of  iwo  kinds ;  either  such  as  are  employ- 
ed in  description,  or  such  as  are  suggested  by  the  warmth  of 
prission.  All  passions  without  exception,  love,  terror,  a- 
mazement,  indignation,  and  even  grief,  throw  the  mind  into 
confusion,  aggravate  their  objects,  and  of  course  prompt  a 
hyperbolical  style.  Hence  the  following  sentir«,  its  of  Sa- 
tan in  Milton,  as  strongly  as  they  are  described,  contain  no- 
thing but  whftt  is  natural  and  proper;  exhibiting  the  picture 
©f  a  mind  agitated  with  rage  and  despair. 

Me,  miserable  !  which  way  shall  I  fly 
Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair  ? 
Which  way  I  fly  is  Hell,  myself  am  Hell ; 
And  in  the  lowest  depth,  a  lower  deep, 
Slill  threat'ning  to  devour  me,  opens  wide, 
To  which  the  Heii  1  sufler  seems  a  Heaven. 


303  APPENDIX.  {Figures. 

The  fear  of  an  enemy  augments  t\ie  conceptions  of  the 
size  of  their  leader.  '1  saw  their  chief,'  s  lys  the  scout  of 
Ossian,  'tall  as  a  lock  of  ice;  his  spear,  the  hlasted  fir;  his 
shiehl,  the  rising  moon  :  he  sat  on  the  shore,  like  a  cloud  of 
mist  on  the  hill.' 

The  errors  frequent  in  the  use  of  Hj^perboles,  arise  either 
from  overstraining,  or  introducing  them  on  uusuitable  occa- 
sions. Dryden,  in  his  poem  on  the  restoration  of  kirig 
Churles  the  Second,  compliments  that  monarch,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  sun  himself. 

''IMiat  star  at  your  birth  shone  out  so  bright, 
It  stain'd  the  duller  sun's  meridian  light. 

This  is  indeed  mere  liomoast.  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain, 
by  any  precise  rule,  the  profjer  measure  and  bountlary  of  this 
figure.  Good  sense  and  Just  taste  must  determine  the  point, 
beyond  which,  if  we  pass,  we  become  extravagant. 

Vision  is  another  figure  of  speech,  which  is  proper  only 
in  ardniiled  and  warm  composition.  It  is  produce*!  wben, 
instead  of  relating  something  that  is  past,  we  usf*  the  pres- 
ent tense,  and  de8cril>e  it  as  actually  passing  beft»re  our  eyes. 
Thus  Cicero,  in  his  fourth  oration  against  Catiline  :  *l  seem 
to  myself  to  behotd  tl^is  city,  the  ornament  of  the  earth,  and 
the  capital  of  all  nations,  suddenly  involved  in  one  confla- 
gration. I  see  before  me  the  shuightered  heaps  of  citizens, 
lying  unhuried  in  the  miilst  of  their  ruined  country.  The 
furious  countenance  of  Celhegus  rises  ro  my  view,  while, 
Avith  a  savage  joy,  he  Is  triumphing  in  your  miseries.' 

This  manner  of  description  supposes  a  sort  of  eiilhusiasm, 
which  carries  the  person  who  describes,  in  some  measure  out 
of  himself;  and,  when  well  executed,  must  nfeds,  by  the 
force  of  sy'/Mthy,  impress  the  reader  or  hearer  very  strong- 
ly. But,  ,  .  order  to  a  successful  execution,  it  requires  an 
uncommonly  warm  imagination,  and  so  happy  a  selection  of 
circumstances,  as  shall  m  ike  us  think  we  see  before  our 
eyes  the  scene  that  is  described. 

Interrogation.  The  uti figured,  literal  use  of  interroga- 
tion, is  to  ask  a  question :  but  when  men  are  strongly  mov- 
ed, whatever  they  would  affirm  or  deny,  with  great  earnest- 
ness, they  naturally  put  in  the  form  of  a  question,  express- 
ing thereby  the  strongest  coaMuuce  of  the  truth  oi  their 


Figures.)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  30^ 

own  sentiment,  ami  j:ppealing  to  their  hearers  for  the  impos- 
silnliJy  of  the  contrary.  Thus  Balaam  expressed  himself 
to  Balak.  'The  Lord  is  not  a  man  that  he  shouUI  lie,  nei- 
ther the  son  of  mm  that  he  should  repent.  Flath  he  said  it  ? 
and  shall  he  nt)t  4I0  it  ?  Hath  he  spoken  it  ?  and  shall  he 
not  m.ike  it  good  ? 

Interrogation  gives  life  and  spirit  to  discourse.  We  see 
this  in  the  atiimiled,  introductory  speech  ot*  Cicero  against 
Catiline  :  'How  long  will  you,  Catiline,  abuse  our  patience  ? 
Do  you  not  perceive  that  your  designs  are  discovered  T — 
He  might  indeed  have  said  :  'You  abuse  our  patience  a  long 
■while.  You  must  be  sensible,  that  your  designs  are  discov- 
ered.' Hut  it  is  easy  to  perceive,  how  much  this  latter 
mode  of  expression  fdils  short  of  the  force  and  vehemence 
of  the  former. 

Exclamations  are  the  effect  of  strong  emotions  of  the  mind; 
such  as,  surprise,  admiration,  joy,  grief,  and  the  like.  'Wo 
is  me  that  1  sojourn  in  Mesech,  that  I  dwell  in  the  tents  of 
Kedar  !'  Psalms.  'O  that  my  head  were  waters,  and  mine 
eyes. a  fountain  of  tears,  that  I  might  weep  day  and  night, 
for  the  slain  of  the  daughter  of  my  people  !  O  that  I  had  ia 
the  wilderness  a  lodging-place  of  way-faring  men  !'  Jer, 

Though  interrogations  may  be  introduced  into  close  and 
earnest  reasoning,  exclamations  belong  only  to  strong  emo- 
tions of  the  mind.  When  judiciously  employed,  they  agi- 
tate the  hearer  or  the  reader  with  similar  passions  :  but  it  is 
extremely  improper,  and  sometimes  ridiculous,  to  use  them 
on  trivial  occasions,  and  on  mean  or  low  subjects.  The 
unexperienced  writer  often  attempts  to  elevate  his  language, 
by  the  copious  display  of  this  figure :  but  he  rarely  or  never 
succeeds.  He  frequently  renders  his  composition  frigid  to 
excess,  or  absolutely  ludicrous,  by  calling  on  us  to  enter  in- 
to his  transports,  when  nothing  is  said  or  done  to  demand 
emotion. 

Irony  is  expressing  ourselves  in  a  manner  contrary  to  our 
thoughts,  not  with  a  view  to  deceive,  but  to  add  force  to  our 
observations.  Persons  may  be  reproved  for  their  negligence 
by  saying,  'You  have  taken  great  care  indeed.'  Cicero  says 
of  the  person  against  whom  he  was  pleading,  'We  have  great 
reason  to  believe  that  the  modest  man  would  not  ask  him 
for  his  debt,  when  he  pursues  his  life.' 


310  APPENDIX.  {Figures. 

Ironical  exhortation  is  a  very  ag:reeable  kind  of  fio-ure ; 
which,  after  hav  inp;  s<^t  the  inconveniences  of  a  thing,  in  the 
clearest  light,  conelu«les  with  a  feigned  encouragement  to 
pursue  it.  Such  is  th<it  of  Horace,  "VNhen,  having  beautifully 
described  the  noise  and  tumults  of  Rome,  he  adds  ironically, 

'Go  now,  and  study  tuneful  verse  at  Rome.' 

The  su!>jec<s  of  Irony  are  vices  and  follies  of  all  kinds: 
and  this  mode  of  ex})osing  them,  is  often  more  eflectual 
than  serious  reasonir\<r.  The  gravest  persons  have  not  de- 
clined the  use  of  this  fi2;ure,  on  proper  occasions.  The  wise 
anti  virl'^Mus  Socrates  nia<le  great  use  of  it,  in  his  endeavors 
to  discountenance  vicious  and  foolish  practices.  Even  ia 
t)ie  SHcred  writings,  we  have  a  remarkable  instance  of  it. 
The  prophet  Elij  ih,  when  he  challenged  the  priests  of  Baal 
to  prove  the  truth  of  their  deity,  'mocked  them,  and  said  : 
Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god  :  either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is 
pursuing,  or  he  is  in  a. journey,  or  peradvenlure  he  sleep- 
?  '!i,  and  must  be  awaked.' 

Ex(lam:»tions  and  Irony  are  sometimes  united  :  as  in  Cic- 
ero's oration  for  Balbus,  where  he  derides  his  accuser,  by 
saying,  *0  excellent  interfireter  of  the  law  !  master  of  auti- 
(juily  !  correctiJ  'uder  of  our  constitution  !' 

The  last  figure  of  sjieech  which  we  shall  mention,  is  whdt 
V  Titers  call  ImpUficalion  or  CI  max.  It  consists  in  height- 
ening all  the  circumstancf  s  of  an  olject  or  action,  which 
v.e  desire  to  place  in  a  strong  light.  Cicero  gives  a  livt  ly 
instance  of  (his  figure,  when  he  suys,  'It  if  a  crime  to  put  a 
Roman  citizen  in  bonds;  it  is  the  height  of  guilt  to  scourge 
hi  n  ;  little  less  than  parricide  to  i»ut  him  to  death  :  what 
name  then  shdl  I  give  to  the  ict  of  crucifying  him  V 

Archbishop  Tillotson  uses  this  figure  very  happdy,  to  re- 
commend good  and  virtuo!is  actions  :  'After  we  have  prac- 
tised good  actions  a  while,  thej'  »>ecome  easy;  and  when 
they  are  easy,  we  begin  to  take  pleasure  in  them;  and  when 
they  please  us,  we  do  them  frequently;  ud  l)y  frequency 
of  acts,  a  thing  grows  into  a  habit ;  an«l  confirmed  haldt  is  a 
kind  of  second  nature ;  and  so  far  as  any  thing  is  natural, 
80  fir  it  is  necess  ry  ;  and  we  can  hardly  do  otherwise ;  uay, 
we  do  it  many  times  when  we  do  not  think  of  it.' 


Figures,)  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  311 

We  shall  conclude  this  article  with  an  example  of  a  beau- 
tiful climax,  taken  from  the  charge  of  a  judge  to  the  jury, 
in  the  case  of  a  v\omau  accusfd  of  murdering  her  ou  n  child. 
'Gentlemen,  if  one  man  had  any  how  slain  another;  if  an 
adversary  iiad  killed  his  opposer,  or  a  woman  occasioned 
the  death  of  her  enemy  :  even  these  criminals  would  have 
been  ca|>itally  punished  by  the  Corntlian  law  :  hut  if  this 
guiltless  infant,  that  could  make  no  enemy,  had  been  mur- 
dered by  its  own  nurse,  what  punishment  wouhl  not  thea 
the  mother  have  demanded  ?  with  what  cries  and  exclama- 
tions would  she  have  slunned  your  ears  !  What  shall  we 
say  then,  when  a  woman,  guUly  of  homicide,  a  mother,  of 
the  murder  of  her  innocent  child,  hath  comprised  all  those 
misdeeds  in  one  single  crime  ?  a  crime,  in  its  own  nature, 
detestable;  in  a  woman,  prodigious ;  in  a  mother,  incredi- 
ble ;  and  perpetrated  against  one  whose  age  called  for  com- 
passion, whose  near  retaton  claimed  affection,  and  whose 
innocence  deserved  the  highest  favor.' 

We  have  now  finished  what  was  proposed,  concerning 
Perspicuity  in  single  words  and  phras^^s,  and  the  accurate 
construction  of  sentences.  The  former  has  been  consider- 
ed under  the  heads  of  Purity,  Propriety,  and  Precision;  and 
the  latter,  under  those  of  Clearness,  Unity,  Strength,  and 
the  proper  use  of  Figurative  Language.  Though  many  of 
those  attentions  which  have  been  recommended,  may  ap- 
pear minute,  yet  their  effect  upon  writing  and  style,  is  much 
greater  than  mio^ht,  at  first,  be  imagined.  A  sentiment 
which  is  expressed  in  accurate  language,  and  in  a  period, 
clearly,  neatly,  and  Well  arranged,  always  makes  a  stronger 
impression  on  the  mind,  than  one  that  is  expressed  inaccu- 
rately, or  in  a  feeble  or  embarrassed  manntr.  Kvery  one 
feels  this  upon  a  comparison  :  and  if  the  effect  t  c  sensible 
in  one  sentence,  how  much  more  in  a  whole  <liscourse,  or 
composition  that  is  made  up  of  such  sentences  ? 

1  he  fundamental  rule  for  writing  with  accuracy,  and  info 
which  all  others  might  be  resolved,  unc^ouhtedly  is,  to  cun" 
municate^  in  correct  langvape^  and  in  (he  clearest  and  mo6t 
fiattiral  *rder^  ih  ideas  nfuvh  we  mean  to  transfuse  into  the 
minds  f  of  has,  JSuch  a  selection  and  arrangement  of  v\  oii^s, 
03  to  do  most  justice  to  the  sense,  and  express  it  lO  most 


312  APPENDIX. 

advanfaore,  mnke  an  aorreeable  and  strong:  impression.  To 
these  points  have  tended  all  the  rules  which  have  been  di- 
vert. Did  we  always  think  clearly,  and  were  we,  at  the 
SJirne  time,  fully  masters  ot  ihe  language  in  which  we  write, 
there  \AOuld  be  occiision  for  tew  rules.  Our  sentences  v\ould 
then,  of  course,  acquire  all  those  pro[)erties  of  clearness,  ufii- 
iy^  strength  and  accuracy,  which  have  been  reconimen(ied. 
For  we  may  rest  cissured,  that  whenever  we  express  our- 
sehes  ill,  fiesides  the  mismanagement  of  language,  there  is, 
for  the  most  part,  some  mistake  in  our  mannt  r  of  conceiving 
the  suikjech  Embarrassed,  obscure,  and  feeble  sentences, 
are  generally,  if  not  always,  the  result  of  embarr.  ssed,  ob- 
scure, and  feeble  thought.  Thuiight  and  expression  act  and 
re-act  upon  each  other.  The  understanding  an<i  language 
have  a  strict  connexion  ;  and  they  who  are  learning  to  com- 
pose and  arrange  their  sentences  with  accuracy  and  order, 
are  learning,  at  the  same  time,  to  think  with  accuracy  and 
order;  a  consideration  which  alone  will  recompense  the 
student,  W  his  attention  to  this  branch  of  litera4jure. 


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